Factors Associated With Domestic Violence Against Women at Different Stages of Life: Findings From a 19-Year Longitudinal Dataset From the MINIMat Trial in Rural Bangladesh (2001-2020).

Despite the abundance of literature, longitudinal studies evaluating the factors associated with domestic violence (DV) at different stages and over longer periods of women's lives are rare. We evaluated factors associated with physical and sexual DV during pregnancy, at 10-year, and 18-year follow-ups after pregnancy and within a 19-year period of life using a cohort of women (n = 1,126) who participated in the Maternal and Infant Nutrition Interventions, Matlab trial in rural Bangladesh. Data on women's experience of DV, social and economic characteristics, empowerment, and family condition were recorded in a similar manner during pregnancy and at 10- and 18-year follow-ups, using standard questionnaires. Multivariate logistic regression models and generalized estimating equations were used to evaluate factors associated with women's experience of physical and sexual violence at each discrete time point and over a period of 19 years, respectively. During pregnancy, women were more likely to experience violence if they were members of microcredit programs/non-governmental organizations (NGOs), living in an extended family and had lower wealth status. At the 10- and 18-year follow-ups, higher levels of decision-making and higher wealth status were protective against the experience of violence. At the 18-year follow-up, women with larger age differences from their husbands were less likely to experience violence, while membership in microcredit programs/NGOs was associated with higher odds of experiencing violence among women. Within a period of 19 years, a higher level of education, living in an extended family, higher decision-making level and higher wealth index were protective against the experience of violence, while membership in microcredit programs/NGOs was a risk factor. In conclusion, this study showed that correlates of violence might change at different time points in women's life. Thus, policies and programs should consider the stage of women's lives while planning interventions for addressing violence against women.

Effect of Rural-Urban Migration on Age at Marriage Among Adolescent Girls in Bangladesh.

Objectives: Bangladesh reports one of the highest rates of child marriage (CM) (59%) in the world and the highest rate within South Asia. Age at marriage of girls is a critical human rights and developmental issue in Bangladesh. Migration has been documented to be positively associated with age at marriage. Bangladesh experiences one of the highest rates of rural to urban migration in the world. An increase in rural-urban migration of adolescent girls has been observed over the last few decades in Bangladesh with the expansion of employment opportunities particularly in the ready-made garment industry (RMG). This analysis explores the effect of migration on age at marriage and CM among adolescent girls living in urban slums of Dhaka. Methods: The sample was selected from icddr,b's Urban Health and Demographic Surveillance System (UHDSS) and comprises of never-married adolescent girls aged 15-19, who migrated in from rural Bangladesh to slums in and around Dhaka during 2015-2019. These in-migrants were matched with their rural counterparts from icddr,b's Matlab HDSS (MHDSS), using one to one nearest neighbor matching with caliper 0.1 using propensity score matching (PSM) method. The sample derived included a total of 2,700 never-married adolescent girls from Dhaka and Matlab. The association between migration and age at first marriage was estimated using a linear regression model and the effect of migration on CM was explored using logistic regression analyses. Results: The in-migrants perfectly matched with their rural peers in terms of age, household wealth and religion. However, their income earning status was hugely different. Urban migrants had significantly higher age at marriage than the rural non-migrants for both 15-19 (Coefficient, 1.77; 95% CI, 1.07-2.46) and 20-24 years age group (Coefficient, 2.87; 95% CI, 2.18-3.55). The migrant girls aged 20-24 years were 71% (aOR, 0.29; 95% CI, 0.12-0.69) less likely to get married before CM age bar in Bangladesh compared to their rural counterparts. Conclusion: Migration has a positive effect on delaying marriage and reducing CM among adolescent girls. Findings from this study suggest that CM can be reduced by creating educational and economic opportunities for females.

Impact evaluation of the Care Tipping Point Initiative in Nepal: study protocol for a mixed-methods cluster randomised controlled trial.

INTRODUCTION: Girl child, early and forced marriage (CEFM) persists in South Asia, with long-term consequences for girls. CARE's Tipping Point Initiative (TPI) addresses the causes of CEFM by challenging repressive gender norms and inequalities. The TPI engages different participant groups on programmatic topics and supports community dialogue to build girls' agency, shift inequitable power relations, and change community norms sustaining CEFM. METHODS/ANALYSIS: The Nepal TPI impact evaluation has an integrated, mixed-methods design. The quantitative evaluation is a three-arm, cluster randomised controlled trial (control; Tipping Point Programme (TPP); TPP+ with emphasised social norms change). Fifty-four clusters of ~200 households were selected from two districts (27:27) with probability proportional to size and randomised. A household census ascertained eligible study participants, including unmarried girls and boys 12-16 years (1242:1242) and women and men 25+ years (270:270). Baseline participation was 1134 girls, 1154 boys, 270 women and 270 men. Questionnaires covered agency; social networks/norms; and discrimination/violence. Thirty in-depth interviews, 8 key-informant interviews and 32 focus group discussions were held across eight TPP/TPP+ clusters. Guides covered gender roles/aspirations; marriage decisions; girls' safety/mobility; collective action; perceived shifts in child marriage; and norms about girls. Monitoring involves qualitative interviews, focus groups and session/event observations over two visits. Qualitative analyses follow a modified grounded theory approach. Quantitative analyses apply intention to treat, regression-based difference-in-difference strategies to assess impacts on primary (married, marriage hazard) and secondary outcomes, targeted endline tracing and regression-based methods to address potential selection bias. ETHICS/DISSEMINATION: The Nepal Social Welfare Council approved CARE Nepal to operate in the study districts. Emory (IRB00109419) and the Nepal Health Research Council (161-2019) approved the study. We follow UNICEF and CARE guidelines for ethical research involving children and gender-based violence. Study materials are here or available on request. We will share findings through clinicaltrials.gov, CARE reports/briefs and publications. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT04015856.

Magnitude and correlates of intimate partner violence against female garment workers from selected factories in Bangladesh.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a huge public health, development and human rights issue worldwide. Despite the fact that working women in patriarchal contexts commonly report higher level of IPV, literature on this subject is still scanty. This paper assessed the magnitude of different types of IPV against female garment workers and identified its correlates using cross-sectional survey data collected during September-December, 2016 from 800 female garment workers randomly selected from lists provided by eight garment factories in and around Dhaka, Bangladesh. The results reveal high levels of IPV experienced by the workers (physical = 34%; sexual = 43%; economic = 35%, last 12 months). Logistic regression results were nuanced. While the worker's ability to mobilize resources in crises reduced IPV, her savings beyond a threshold increased its likelihood. Moreover, her ownership of jewellery/ large household assets increased the likelihood of IPV. Having moderately or highly controlling husband, substance abuse by husband and his involvement in extramarital sex predicted IPV. Although the worker's education up to 6 years or more was protective, education more than the husband increased the likelihood of IPV. Young age, having two or more children, experience of non-partner sexual violence and high acceptance of IPV increased the likelihood of IPV. Middle income group protected against IPV, while household food insecurity increased its likelihood. Work at a factory in the Export Processing Zone protected against IPV. The findings indicate that financial empowerment alone is not sufficient to protect the workers from IPV; interventions that combine gender empowerment training for workers in the context of better factory working conditions may be useful in reducing IPV; working with men is essential in this endeavour.