Effects of a pharmaceutical care intervention on clinical outcomes and patient adherence in coronary heart disease: the MIMeRiC randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: In the treatment of coronary heart disease, secondary prevention goals are still often unmet and poor adherence to prescribed drugs has been suggested as one of the reasons. We aimed to investigate whether pharmaceutical care by a pharmacist at the cardiology clinic trained in motivational interviewing improves clinical outcomes and patient adherence. METHODS: This was a prospective, randomized, controlled, outcomes-blinded trial designed to compare pharmaceutical care follow-up with standard care. After standard follow-up at the cardiology clinic, patients in the intervention group were seen by a clinical pharmacist two to five times as required over seven months. Pharmacists were trained to use motivational interviewing in the consultations and they tailored their support to each patient's clinical needs and beliefs about medicines. The primary study end-point was the proportion of patients who reached the treatment goal for low-density lipoprotein cholesterol by 12 months after discharge. The key secondary outcome was patient adherence to lipid-lowering therapy at 15 months after discharge, and other secondary outcomes were the effects on patient adherence to other preventive drugs, systolic blood pressure, disease-specific quality of life, and healthcare use. RESULTS: 316 patients were included. The proportion of patients who reached the target for low-density lipoprotein cholesterol were 37.0% in the intervention group and 44.2% in the control group (P = .263). More intervention than control patients were adherent to cholesterol-lowering drugs (88 vs 77%; P = .033) and aspirin (97 vs 91%; P = .036) but not to beta-blocking agents or renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors. CONCLUSIONS: Our intervention had no positive effects on risk factors for CHD, but it increased patient adherence. Further investigation of the intervention process is needed to explore the difference in results between patient adherence and medication effects. Longer follow-up of healthcare use and mortality will determine if the increased adherence per se eventually will have a meaningful effect on patient health. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02102503, 03/04/2014 retrospectively registered.

Trends in inappropriate drug therapy prescription in the elderly in Sweden from 2006 to 2013: assessment using national indicators.

BACKGROUND: Medication for elderly patients is often complex and problematic. Several criteria for classifying inappropriate prescribing exist. In 2010, the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare published the document "Indicators of appropriate drug therapy in the elderly" as a guideline for improving prescribing for the elderly. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to assess trends in the prescription of inappropriate drug therapy in the elderly in Sweden from 2006 to 2013 using national quality indicators for drug treatment. METHODS: Individual-based data on dispensed prescription drugs for the entire Swedish population aged ≥65 years during eight 3-month periods from 2006 to 2013 were accumulated. The data were extracted from the Swedish Prescribed Drug Register. Eight drug-specific quality indicators were monitored. RESULTS: For the entire population studied (n = 1,828,283 in 2013), six of the eight indicators showed an improvement according to the guidelines; the remaining two indicators (drugs with anticholinergic effects and excessive polypharmacy) remained relatively unchanged. For the subgroup aged 65-74 years, three indicators showed an improvement, four indicators remained relatively unchanged (e.g. propiomazine, and oxazepam) and one showed an undesirable trend (anticholinergic drugs) according to guidelines. For the older group (aged ≥75 years), all indicators except excessive polypharmacy showed improvement. CONCLUSION: According to the quality indicators used, the extent of inappropriate drug therapy in the elderly decreased from 2006 to 2013 in Sweden. Thus, prescribers appear to be more likely to change their prescribing patterns for the elderly than previously assumed.

Factors influencing the prescription of drugs of different price levels.

PURPOSE: Socioeconomic factors have been suggested to influence the prescribing of newer and more expensive drugs. In the present study, individual and health care provider factors were studied in relation to the prevalence of differently priced drugs. METHODS: Register data for dispensed drugs were retrieved for 18 486 individuals in a county council in Sweden. The prevalence of dispensed drugs was combined with data for the individual's gender, age, education, income, foreign background, and type of caregiver. For each of the diagnostic groups (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [COPD], depression, diabetes, and osteoporosis), selected drugs were dichotomized into cost categories, lower and higher price levels. Univariate and multivariate logistic regressions were performed using cost category as the dependent variable and the individual and provider factors as independent variables. RESULTS: In all four diagnostic groups, differences were observed in the prescription of drugs of lower and higher price levels with regard to the different factors studied. Age and gender affected the prescription of drugs of lower and higher price levels more generally, except for gender in the osteoporosis group. Income, education, foreign background, and type of caregiver affected prescribing patterns but in different ways for the different diagnostic groups. CONCLUSIONS: Certain individual and provider factors appear to influence the prescribing of drugs of different price levels. Because the average price for the cheaper drugs versus more costly drugs in each diagnostic group was between 19% and 69%, there is a risk that factors other than medical needs are influencing the choice of drug.

The impact of increasing polypharmacy on prescribed drug expenditure-a register-based study in Sweden 2005-2009.

OBJECTIVES: To analyse the impact of the observed increase in the prevalence in polypharmacy on the development of prescribed drug expenditure (PDE) in a national population during five years. METHODS: A register-based study of all prescribed drugs and PDE for the entire Swedish population during a 3-month period in 2005 and 2009, respectively. The prevalence of "polypharmacy" and "excessive polypharmacy" was defined as the proportion of patients receiving five or more (PD≥5) and ten or more (PD≥10) prescribed drugs during a 3-month period, respectively. RESULTS: Between 2005 and 2009, the prevalence of polypharmacy increased by 8.3% (from 11.1% to 12.0%), and the prevalence of excessive polypharmacy by 9.9% (from 2.4% to 2.6%). Total PDE increased by 4.8% in real prices. For the group of patients with polypharmacy and excessive polypharmacy, PDE increased by 6.2%, and 7.3%, respectively. A simulation, in which the increase in polypharmacy was neutralised, resulted in no increase in total PDE. CONCLUSIONS: The increase in the prevalence of polypharmacy has a substantial impact on the increase in PDE and can explain the entire increase in PDE in Sweden during 2005 to 2009. For clinicians and healthcare stakeholders, it is important to monitor and guidance the further development in multiple medication therapy, so that the cost associated with increasing polypharmacy will not exceed its benefits.

Factors leading to excessive polypharmacy.

There are numerous risk factors for patients to develop excessive polypharmacy. The most prominent risk factors are associated with sociodemographics and the patients' conditions. Risk factors associated with patient behavior, such as patient's self medication with all types of medications, have not been observed to the same extent but might be at the same level of importance for patients developing excessive polypharmacy. Risk factors related to physicians, and the interaction between patient and physician, are studied to a much lesser extent. The few studies conducted regarding the large variation in physicians' individual prescribing practices, in terms of polypharmacy, add another perspective to the complexity of the area. Interventions aiming to improve communication between GP and hospital specialist, to create support systems for medical reviews that include all patients' medications, and to improve the knowledge of multiple prescribing might have the largest potential to better manage excessive polypharmacy.

Non-adherence to drug therapy and drug acquisition costs in a national population--a patient-based register study.

BACKGROUND: Patients' non-adherence to drug therapy is a major problem for society as it is associated with reduced health outcomes. Generally, approximately only 50% of patients with chronic disease in developed countries adhere to prescribed therapy, and the most common non-adherence refers to chronic under-use, i.e. patients use less medication than prescribed or prematurely stop the therapy. Patients' non-adherence leads to high additional costs for society in terms of poor health. Non-adherence is also related to the unnecessary sale of drugs. The aim of the present study was to estimate the drug acquisition cost related to non-adherence to drug therapy in a national population. METHODS: We constructed a model of the drug acquisition cost related to non-adherence to drug therapy based on patient register data of dispensed out-patient prescriptions in the entire Swedish population during a 12-month period. In the model, the total drug acquisition cost was successively adjusted for the assumed different rates of primary non-adherence (prescriptions not being filled by the patient), and secondary non-adherence (medication not being taken as prescribed) according to the patient's age, therapies, and the number of dispensed drugs per patient. RESULTS: With an assumption of a general primary non-adherence rate of 3%, and a general secondary non-adherence rate of 50%, for all types of drugs, the acquisition cost related to non-adherence totalled SEK 11.2 billion (€ 1.2 billion), or 48.5% of total drug acquisition costs in Sweden 2006. With the assumption of varying primary non-adherence rates for different age groups and different secondary non-adherence rates for varying types of drug therapies, the acquisition cost related to non-adherence totalled SEK 9.3 billion (€ 1.0 billion), or 40.2% of the total drug acquisition costs. When the assumption of varying primary and secondary non-adherence rates for a different number of dispensed drugs per patient was added to the model, the acquisition cost related to non-adherence totalled SEK 9.9 billion (€ 1.1 billion), or 42.6% of the total drug acquisition costs. CONCLUSIONS: Our estimate indicates that drug acquisition costs related to non-adherence represent a substantial proportion of the economic resources in the health care sector. A low rate of primary non-adherence, combined with a high rate of secondary non-adherence, contributes to a large degree of unnecessary medical spending. Thus, efforts of different types of interventions are needed to improve secondary adherence.

Adherence, therapeutic intensity, and the number of dispensed drugs.

PURPOSE: To estimate non-adherence in relation to the therapeutic intensity (TI) and the number of dispensed drugs per individual and study whether the TI can be used as an estimator of non-adherence with an increasing number of drugs. METHODS: The study comprised an individual-based register of all dispensed outpatient prescriptions in Sweden in 2006, including 6.2 million individuals. The applied definition of drug was the chemical entity or substance comprising the fifth level in the World Health Organisation's Anatomic, Therapeutic, Chemical classification. The defined daily dosage per individual during 12 months was applied as an indicator of the TI. RESULTS: We found a positive linear relation between the TI and the increasing number of dispensed drugs per individual, both for men and women. We found a slightly diminishing TI with an increasing number of drugs only for the age groups above 70 years, at a level above 13 drugs per individual. CONCLUSIONS: The linear relationship between the TI and the increasing number of dispensed drugs per individual provides poor support for using decreasing TI as an estimator of non-adherence. The low rate of cost-related non-adherence in Sweden might contribute to explaining the linear relationship.

Acquisition cost of dispensed drugs in individuals with multiple medications--a register-based study in Sweden.

OBJECTIVES: To analyse the acquisition cost of dispensed prescription drugs for individuals with multiple medications in a national population. METHODS: We collected and analysed individual based data regarding the acquisition cost of dispensed prescription drugs for all individuals with five or more dispensed drugs (DP≥5) in Sweden 2006 (2.2 million). RESULTS: Individuals with DP≥5 (24.5% of the population) accounted for 78.8% of the total acquisition cost, and individuals with DP≥10 (8.6% of the population) and DP≥15 (3.0% of the population) accounted for 46.3% and 23.2%, respectively. The average acquisition cost per defined daily doses (DDD) generally decreased with increasing age. The highest average cost per DDD was observed for individuals with DP≥10. The acquisition cost for women with DP≥5 represented 56.0% of the total acquisition cost. Men with DP≥5 represented 44.0% of the total acquisition cost. CONCLUSIONS: In an entire national population, individuals with multiple medication accounted for four fifths of the total acquisition cost of dispensed drugs. Actions to reduce the number of prescription drugs for the group of patients with a number of different drugs may also result in a substantial reduction of the total acquisition cost.

Assessment of regional variation in polypharmacy.

PURPOSE: To assess polypharmacy in a population with emphasis on regions. METHODS: We studied the individual-based data of all dispensed prescription drugs (DP) during a 3-month study period in Sweden 2006. As an indicator of polypharmacy, five or more (DP > or = 5) different drugs (substances) dispensed were applied. For analysis, we used comparisons of prevalence, correlation of prevalence of polypharmacy with different socioeconomic variables, and a novel weighted polypharmacy index. RESULTS: The national prevalence of polypharmacy, DP > or = 5, was 10.5% (inter-regional variation 9.1-12.1%). The regional variation in the prevalence of polypharmacy was largest for the age groups > or =90 (45.6-59.1%), 80-89 (46.1-53.4%) and 70-79 years (33.1-38.0%). The national prevalence of excessive polypharmacy, DP > or = 10, was 2.2% (inter-regional variation 1.9-2.6%). The regional variation in prevalence of excessive polypharmacy was largest for the age groups > or =90 (9.8-22.3%), 80-89 (11.4-17.1%) and 70-79 years (7.0-9.4%). We found a fairly strong positive correlation between polypharmacy and the age group > or =70 years (r = 0.84 for men and 0.71 for women). The novel weighted polypharmacy index indicated regional differences in the internal distribution of the prevalence of dispensed drugs for individuals with polypharmacy. CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate that the observed regional differences in the prevalence of polypharmacy partly can be explained by the regional age distribution in Sweden. The use of the novel weighted polypharmacy index indicated regional differences in drug therapy for individuals with polypharmacy.

Dispensed drugs and multiple medications in the Swedish population: an individual-based register study.

BACKGROUND: Multiple medications is a well-known potential risk factor in terms of patient's health. The aim of the present study was to estimate the prevalence of dispensed drugs and multiple medications in an entire national population, by using individual based data on dispensed drugs. METHODS: Analyses of all dispensed out-patient prescriptions in 2006 from the Swedish prescribed drug register. As a cut-off for multiple medications, we applied five or more different drugs dispensed (DP >or= 5) at Swedish pharmacies for a single individual during a 3-month, a 6-month, and a 12-month study period. For comparison, results were also calculated with certain drug groups excluded. RESULTS: 6.2 million individuals received at least one dispensed drug (DP >or= 1) during 12 months in 2006 corresponding to a prevalence of 67.4%; 75.6% for females and 59.3% for males. Individuals received on average 4.7 dispensed drugs per individual (median 3, Q1-Q3 2-6); females 5.0 (median 3, Q1-Q3 2-7), males 4.3 (median 3, Q1-Q3 1-6).The prevalence of multiple medications (DP >or= 5) was 24.4% for the entire population. The prevalence increased with age. For elderly 70-79, 80-89, and 90-years, the prevalence of DP >or= 5 was 62.4, 75.1, and 77.7% in the respective age groups. 82.8% of all individuals with DP >or= 1 and 64.9% of all individuals with DP >or= 5 were < 70 years. Multiple medications was more frequent for females (29.6%) than for males (19.2%). For individuals 10 to 39 years, DP >or= 5 was twice as common among females compared to males. Sex hormones and modulators of the genital system excluded, reduced the relative risk (RR) for females vs. males for DP >or= 5 from 1.5 to 1.4. The prevalence of DP >or= 1 increased from 45.1 to 56.2 and 67.4%, respectively, when the study period was 3, 6, and 12 respectively months and the corresponding prevalence of DP >or= 5 was 11.3, 17.2, and 24.4% respectively. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of dispensed drugs and multiple medications were extensive in all age groups and were higher for females than for males. Multiple medications should be regarded as a risk in terms of potential drug-drug interactions and adverse drug reactions in all age groups.

Assessment of ePrescription quality: an observational study at three mail-order pharmacies.

BACKGROUND: The introduction of electronic transfer of prescriptions (ETP) or ePrescriptions in ambulatory health care has been suggested to have a positive impact on the prescribing and dispensing processes. Thereby, implying that ePrescribing can improve safety, quality, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness. In December 2007, 68% of all new prescriptions were transferred electronically in Sweden. The aim of the present study was to assess the quality of ePrescriptions by comparing the proportions of ePrescriptions and non-electronic prescriptions necessitating a clarification contact (correction, completion or change) with the prescriber at the time of dispensing. METHODS: A direct observational study was performed at three Swedish mail-order pharmacies which were known to dispense a large proportion of ePrescriptions (38-75%). Data were gathered on all ePrescriptions dispensed at these pharmacies over a three week period in February 2006. All clarification contacts with prescribers were included in the study and were classified and assessed in comparison with all drug prescriptions dispensed at the same pharmacies over the specified period. RESULTS: Of the 31225 prescriptions dispensed during the study period, clarification contacts were made for 2.0% (147/7532) of new ePrescriptions and 1.2% (79/6833) of new non-electronic prescriptions. This represented a relative risk (RR) of 1.7 (95% CI 1.3-2.2) for new ePrescriptions compared to new non-electronic prescriptions. The increased RR was mainly due to 'Dosage and directions for use', which had an RR of 7.6 (95% CI 2.8-20.4) when compared to other clarification contacts. In all, 89.5% of the suggested pharmacist interventions were accepted by the prescriber, 77.7% (192/247) as suggested and an additional 11.7% (29/247) after a modification during contact with the prescriber. CONCLUSION: The increased proportion of prescriptions necessitating a clarification contact for new ePrescriptions compared to new non-electronic prescriptions indicates the need for an increased focus on quality aspects in ePrescribing deployment. ETP technology should be developed towards a two-way communication between the prescriber and the pharmacist with automated checks of missing, inaccurate, or ambiguous information. This would enhance safety and quality for the patient and also improve efficiency and cost-effectiveness within the health care system.

Individuals appreciate having their medication record on the web: a survey of attitudes to a national pharmacy register.

BACKGROUND: Many patients receive health care in different settings. Thus, a limitation of clinical care may be inaccurate medication lists, since data exchange between settings is often lacking and patients do not regularly self-report on changes in their medication. Health care professionals and patients are both interested in utilizing electronic health information. However, opinion is divided as to who should take responsibility for maintaining personal health records. In Sweden, the government has passed a law to enforce and fund a national register of dispensed medications. The register comprises all individuals with dispensed medications (6.4 million individuals, September 2006) and can be accessed by the individual online via "My dispensed medications". The individual has the right to restrict the accessibility of the information in health care settings. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to evaluate the users' attitudes towards their access to "My dispensed medications" as part of a new interactive Internet service on prescribed medications. METHOD: A password-protected Web survey was conducted among a first group of users of "My dispensed medications". Data was anonymously collected and analyzed with regard to the usefulness and design of the Web site, the respondents' willingness to discuss their "My dispensed medications" with others, their reasons for access, and their source of information about the service. RESULTS: During the study period (January-March, 2007), all 7860 unique site visitors were invited to answer the survey. Invitations were accepted by 2663 individuals, and 1716 responded to the online survey yielding a view rate of 21.8% (1716/7860) and a completion rate of 64.4% (1716/2663). The completeness rate for each question was in the range of 94.9% (1629/1716) to 99.5% (1707/1716). In general, the respondents' expectations of the usefulness of "My dispensed medications" were high (total median grade 5; Inter Quartile Range [IQR] 3, on a scale 1-6). They were also positive about the design of the Web site (total median grade 5; IQR 1, on a scale 1-6). The high grades were not dependent on age or number of drugs. A majority of the respondents, 60.4% (1037/1716), had learned about "My dispensed medications" from pharmacies. 70.4% (1208/1716) of all respondents said they visited "My dispensed medications" to get control or an overview of their drugs. Getting control was a more common (P < .001) answer for the elderly (age 75 or above), whereas curiosity was more common (P < .001) for the younger age group (18-44 years). CONCLUSION: We found that users of the provider-based personal medication record "My dispensed medications" appreciated the access to their record. Since we found that the respondents liked the design of the Web site and perceived that the information was easy to understand, the study provided no reason for system changes. However, a need for more information about the register, and to extend its use, was recognized.