Spatial Aspects of Health-Developing a Conceptual Framework.

Numerous studies and models address the determinants of health. However, in existing models, the spatial aspects of the determinants are not or only marginally taken into account and a theoretical discussion of the association between space and the determinants of health is missing. The aim of this paper is to generate a framework that can be used to place the determinants of health in a spatial context. A screening of the current first serves to identify the relevant determinants and describes the current state of knowledge. In addition, spatial scales that are important for the spatial consideration of health were developed and discussed. Based on these two steps, the conceptual framework on the spatial determinants of health was derived and subsequently discussed. The results show a variety of determinants that are associated with health from a spatial point of view. The overarching categories are global driving forces, policy and governance, living and physical environment, socio-demographic and economic conditions, healthcare services and cultural and working conditions. Three spatial scales (macro, meso and micro) are further subdivided into six levels, such as global (e.g., continents), regional (e.g., council areas) or neighbourhood (e.g., communities). The combination of the determinants and spatial scales are presented within a conceptual framework as a result of this work. Operating mechanisms and pathways between the spatial levels were added schematically. This is the first conceptual framework that links the determinants of health with the spatial perspective. It can form the working basis for future analyses in which spatial aspects of health are taken into account.

Risk communication during the 2009 influenza A (H1N1) pandemic: stakeholder experiences from eight European countries.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to assess professional stakeholders' perceptions of the risk-communication difficulties faced during the 2009 influenza A (H1N1) pandemic in Europe. METHODS: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with experts involved in the management of the 2009 swine flu pandemic from different European countries. The interviews were recorded, transcribed, and coded. RESULTS: A total of 25 experts from 8 European countries were interviewed: 9 from the micro-level, 10 from the meso-level, and 6 from the macro-level of employment. The interviews revealed 3 main themes: vaccine issues, communication issues, and general problems. As reasons for the low vaccination coverage, stakeholders mentioned the late arrival of the vaccines, the moderate character of the pandemic, vaccine safety concerns, and a general skepticism toward vaccination. Communication needs varied between the different levels of employment: macro- and meso-level stakeholders preferred fast information but from multiple sources; the micro-level stakeholders preferred one credible source. Throughout Europe, collaboration with the media was perceived as poor and professionals felt misunderstood. CONCLUSIONS: Professional stakeholders should be enabled to access reliable information rapidly through preestablished channels; emphasis should be placed on establishing sustainable cooperations between experts and the media; and measures to improve trust in health authorities, such as the transparent communication of uncertainties, should be encouraged.

Health system resource gaps and associated mortality from pandemic influenza across six Asian territories.

BACKGROUND: Southeast Asia has been the focus of considerable investment in pandemic influenza preparedness. Given the wide variation in socio-economic conditions, health system capacity across the region is likely to impact to varying degrees on pandemic mitigation operations. We aimed to estimate and compare the resource gaps, and potential mortalities associated with those gaps, for responding to pandemic influenza within and between six territories in Asia. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We collected health system resource data from Cambodia, Indonesia (Jakarta and Bali), Lao PDR, Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam. We applied a mathematical transmission model to simulate a "mild-to-moderate" pandemic influenza scenario to estimate resource needs, gaps, and attributable mortalities at province level within each territory. The results show that wide variations exist in resource capacities between and within the six territories, with substantial mortalities predicted as a result of resource gaps (referred to here as "avoidable" mortalities), particularly in poorer areas. Severe nationwide shortages of mechanical ventilators were estimated to be a major cause of avoidable mortalities in all territories except Taiwan. Other resources (oseltamivir, hospital beds and human resources) are inequitably distributed within countries. Estimates of resource gaps and avoidable mortalities were highly sensitive to model parameters defining the transmissibility and clinical severity of the pandemic scenario. However, geographic patterns observed within and across territories remained similar for the range of parameter values explored. CONCLUSIONS: The findings have important implications for where (both geographically and in terms of which resource types) investment is most needed, and the potential impact of resource mobilization for mitigating the disease burden of an influenza pandemic. Effective mobilization of resources across administrative boundaries could go some way towards minimizing avoidable deaths.

2nd-generation HIV surveillance and injecting drug use: uncovering the epidemiological ice-berg.

OBJECTIVES: HIV/AIDS surveillance methods are under revision as the diversity of HIV epidemics is becoming more apparent. The so called "2nd generation surveillance (SGS) systems" aim to enhance surveillance by broadening the range of indicators to prevalence, behaviors and correlates, for a better understanding and a more complete and timely awareness of evolving epidemics. METHODS: Concepts of HIV SGS are reviewed with a special focus on injecting drug users, a major at-risk and hard to reach group in Europe, a region with mainly low or concentrated epidemics. RESULTS: The scope of HIV/AIDS surveillance needs to be broadened following principles of SGS. Specifically for IDUs we propose including hepatitis C data as indicator for injecting risk in routine systems like those monitoring sexually transmitted infections and information on knowledge and attitudes as potential major determinants of risk behavior. CONCLUSIONS: The suggested approach should lead to more complete and timely information for public health interventions, however there is a clear need for comparative validation studies to assess the validity, reliability and cost-effectiveness of traditional and enhanced HIV/AIDS surveillance systems.