Can marine heatwaves affect the fatty acid composition and energy budget of the tropical fish Zebrasoma scopas?

Marine heatwaves (MHWs) are extreme weather events featuring abnormally high seawater temperature, and expected to increase in frequency, duration and severity over this century. The impacts of these phenomena on physiological performance of coral reef species require understanding. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of a simulated MHW (category IV; ΔT = +2 °C, 11 days) (after exposure and 10-day recovery period) on fatty acid (FA) composition (as a biochemical indicator) and energy budget (i.e., growth, G, excretion (faecal, F and nitrogenous losses, U), respiration, R and food consumption, C) of a juvenile tropical surgeonfish species (Zebrasoma scopas). Significant and different changes were found under MHW scenario for some of the most abundant FA and respective groups (i.e., an increase in the contents of 14:0, 18:1n-9, ΣMonounsaturated (ΣMUFA) and 18:2n-6; and a decrease in the levels of 16:0, ΣSaturated (ΣSFA), 18:1n-7, 22:5n-3 and ΣPolyunsaturated (ΣPUFA)). The contents of 16:0 and ΣSFA were also significantly lower after MHW exposure compared to control (CTRL). Additionally, lower feed efficiency (FE), relative growth rate (RGR) and specific growth rate in terms of wet weight (SGRw), as well as higher energy loss for respiration were observed under MHW exposure conditions in comparison with CTRL and MHW recovery period. The energy proportion channelled for faeces dominated the mode of energy allocation, followed by growth in both treatments (after exposure). After MHW recovery, this trend was reversed, and a higher percentage was spent for growth and a lower fraction for faeces than in the MHW exposure period. Overall, FA composition, growth rates and energy loss for respiration of Z. Scopas were the physiological parameters most influenced (mainly in a negative way) by an 11-day MHW event. The observed effects in this tropical species can be exacerbated with increasing intensity and frequency of these extreme events.

Lack of detrimental effects of ocean acidification and warming on proximate composition, fitness and energy budget of juvenile Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis).

Rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) are driving ocean warming and acidification, which may negatively affect the nutritional quality and physiological performance of commercially important fish species. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of ocean acidification (OA; ΔpH = -0.3 units equivalent to ΔpCO2 ~ +600 µatm) and warming (OW; ΔT = +4 °C) (and combined, OAW) on the proximate composition, fitness and energy budget of juvenile Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis). After an exposure period of 75 days, growth (G), metabolism (R) and excretion (faecal, F and nitrogenous losses, U) were assessed to calculate the energy intake (C). Biometric and viscera weight data were also registered to determine animal fitness. Overall, the proximate composition and gross energy were not significantly affected by acidification and warming (alone or in combination). Weight gain, maximum and standard metabolic rates (MMR and SMR, respectively), aerobic scope (AS) and C were significantly higher in fish subjected to OA, OW and OAW than in CTR conditions. Furthermore, the highest relative growth rates (RGR), specific growth rates in terms of wet weight (SGRw) and protein (SGRp), as well as feed efficiencies (FE) occurred in fish submitted to OW and OAW. On the other hand, fish exposed to CTR conditions had significantly higher feed conversion ratio (FCR) and ammonia excretion rate (AER) than those exposed to simulated stressors. Regarding energy distribution, the highest fraction was generally allocated to growth (48-63 %), followed by excretion through faeces (36-51 %), respiration (approximately 1 %) and ammonia excretion (0.1-0.2 %) in all treatments. Therefore, ocean warming and acidification can trigger physiological responses in juvenile Senegalese sole, particularly in their energy budget, which can affect the energy flow and allocation of its population. However, and in general, this species seems highly resilient to these predicted ocean climate change stressors.

Impacts of ocean warming and acidification on the energy budget of three commercially important fish species.

A mechanistic model based on Dynamic Energy Budget (DEB) theory was developed to predict the combined effects of ocean warming, acidification and decreased food availability on growth and reproduction of three commercially important marine fish species: white seabream (Diplodus sargus), zebra seabream (Diplodus cervinus) and Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis). Model simulations used a parameter set for each species, estimated by the Add-my-Pet method using data from laboratory experiments complemented with bibliographic sources. An acidification stress factor was added as a modifier of the somatic maintenance costs and estimated for each species to quantify the effect of a decrease in pH from 8.0 to 7.4 (white seabream) or 7.7 (zebra seabream and Senegalese sole). The model was used to project total length of individuals along their usual lifespan and number of eggs produced by an adult individual within one year, under different climate change scenarios for the end of the 21st century. For the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change SSP5-8.5, ocean warming led to higher growth rates during the first years of development, as well as an increase of 32-34% in egg production, for the three species. Ocean acidification contributed to reduced growth for white seabream and Senegalese sole and a small increase for zebra seabream, as well as a decrease in egg production of 48-52% and 14-33% for white seabream and Senegalese sole, respectively, and an increase of 4-5% for zebra seabream. The combined effect of ocean warming and acidification is strongly dependent on the decrease of food availability, which leads to significant reduction in growth and egg production. This is the first study to assess the combined effects of ocean warming and acidification using DEB models on fish, therefore, further research is needed for a better understanding of these climate change-related effects among different taxonomic groups and species.

Hypercapnia-induced disruption of long-distance mate-detection and reduction of energy expenditure in a coastal keystone crustacean.

Ocean acidification (OA) has been shown to disrupt behavioural responses either by affecting metabolic processes, or by effectively impairing an organisms' ability to gather and assess information and make decisions. Given the lack of information regarding the effects of high CO2 on olfactory-mediated mating behaviours in crustaceans, the possible chemosensory disruption in male mate-tracking in the keystone amphipod (Gammarus locusta) was assessed (after a two-generation acclimation to high CO2 conditions). In a series of behavioural trials, the response time, first direction of movement and the proportion of time spent in the presence of female scent cues were quantified. The possibility of high CO2-induced metabolic changes was assessed through routine metabolic rate (RMR) quantification. We found that hypercapnia was responsible for inducing a delay in response time latency and effectively disrupted accurate female cue-tracking. Moreover, RMR were significantly reduced under high CO2 in both genders. Such finding supports the hypothesis of hypercapnia-induced metabolic depression, which potentially underpins the increased latency in response time verified. Overall, the present study hints the potential disruption of chemosensory-dependent sexual behaviours, through some degree of chemosensory and metabolic disruption. These results emphasize the need for further behavioural tests regarding chemosensory communication in amphipods and energy metabolism, and suggest cascading consequences for the species' reproductive success and overall fitness in a future less alkaline ocean.

Phytoplankton community-level bio-optical assessment in a naturally mercury contaminated Antarctic ecosystem (Deception Island).

Mercury naturally contaminated environments, like Deception Island (Antarctica), are field labs to study the physiological consequences of chronic Hg-exposure at the community level. Deception Island volcanic vents lead to a continuous chronic exposure of the phytoplanktonic communities to potentially toxic Hg concentrations. Comparing Hg-contaminated areas (Fumarolas Bay - FB, Gabriel de Castilla station - GdC station), no significant differences in chlorophyll a concentrations were detected, indicating that biomass production was not impaired by Hg-exposure despite the high Hg levels found in the cells. Moreover, the electron transport energy, responsible for energy production, also presented rather similar values in phytoplankton from both locations. Regarding FB communities, although the cells absorbed and trapped lower amounts of energy, the effect of Hg was not relevant in the photochemical work produced by the electronic transport chain. This might be due to the activation of alternative internal electron donors, as counteractive measure to the energy accumulated inside the cells. In fact, this alternative electron pathway, may have allowed FB communities to have similar electron transport energy fluxes without using respiration as photoprotective measure towards excessive energy. Hg-exposed cells also showed a shift from the energy flux towards the PS I (photosystem I), alleviating the excessive energy accumulation at the PS II (photosystem II) and preventing an oxidative burst. Our findings suggest a higher energy use efficiency in the communities exposed to volcanic Hg, which is not observable in cultured phytoplankton species grown under Hg exposure. This may constitute a metabolic adaptation, driven from chronic exposure allowing the maintenance of high levels of primary productivity under the assumingly unfavourable conditions of Deception Island.

Fish energy budget under ocean warming and flame retardant exposure.

Climate change and chemical contamination are global environmental threats of growing concern for the scientific community and regulatory authorities. Yet, the impacts and interactions of both stressors (particularly ocean warming and emerging chemical contaminants) on physiological responses of marine organisms remain unclear and still require further understanding. Within this context, the main goal of this study was to assess, for the first time, the effects of warming (+ 5 °C) and accumulation of a polybrominated diphenyl ether congener (BDE-209, brominated flame retardant) through dietary exposure on energy budget of the juvenile white seabream (Diplodus sargus). Specifically, growth (G), routine metabolism (R), excretion (faecal, F and nitrogenous losses, U) and food consumption (C) were calculated to obtain the energy budget. The results demonstrated that the energy proportion spent for G dominated the mode of the energy allocation of juvenile white seabream (56.0-67.8%), especially under the combined effect of warming plus BDE-209 exposure. Under all treatments, the energy channelled for R varied around 26% and a much smaller percentage was channelled for excretion (F: 4.3-16.0% and U: 2.3-3.3%). An opposite trend to G was observed to F, where the highest percentage (16.0 ±â€¯0.9%) was found under control temperature and BDE-209 exposure via diet. In general, the parameters were significantly affected by increased temperature and flame retardant exposure, where higher levels occurred for: i) wet weight, relative growth rate, protein and ash contents under warming conditions, ii) only for O:N ratio under BDE-209 exposure via diet, and iii) for feed efficiency, ammonia excretion rate, routine metabolic rate and assimilation efficiency under the combination of both stressors. On the other hand, decreased viscerosomatic index was observed under warming and lower fat content was observed under the combined effect of both stressors. Overall, under future warming and chemical contamination conditions, fish energy budget was greatly affected, which may dictate negative cascading impacts at population and community levels. Further research combining other climate change stressors (e.g. acidification and hypoxia) and emerging chemical contaminants are needed to better understand and forecast such biological effects in a changing ocean.