Impact of atypical antipsychotic use among adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

OBJECTIVES: To compare treatment patterns, resource utilization, and costs to US third-party payers of stimulant-treated adolescent attentiondeficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) patients who switched to or augmented with atypical antipsychotics (AAPs; not FDA-indicated for ADHD) with those who switched to or augmented with nonantipsychotic medications. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study conducted using a US commercial medical/pharmacy claims database. METHODS: Adolescent patients with an ADHD diagnosis and ≥ 1 stimulant medication claim between January 2005 and December 2009 were identified. Patients were classified into the AAP or non-antipsychotic cohorts based on subsequent claims for AAPs or non-antipsychotic medications, respectively. Patients with psychiatric diagnoses for which AAPs are often prescribed were excluded. Patients were matched 1:1 from the AAP to the non-antipsychotic cohort using propensity score matching. Treatment patterns, resource utilization, and costs in the 12 months after AAP or non-antipsychotic initiation were compared using Cox models, Poisson regression, and Wilcoxon signed-rank tests, respectively. RESULTS: After propensity score matching, a total of 849 adolescents were included in each of the matched cohorts. Patients in the AAP cohort had a significantly higher rate of medication augmentation (27.7% vs 15.5%; hazard ratio = 2.56; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.90-3.46; P < .001) than patients in the non-antipsychotic cohort. The AAP cohort also had significantly higher incidences of inpatient admissions (0.13 vs 0.05; incidence rate ratio [IRR] = 2.45; 95% CI, 1.73-3.48; P < .001), emergency department visits (0.39 vs 0.31; IRR = 1.27; 95% CI, 1.08-1.49; P = .004), and outpatient visits (14.82 vs 13.19; IRR = 1.12; 95% CI, 1.10-1.15; P < .001), and incurred significantly higher mean annual medical ($3622 vs $3311; P = .002), drug ($4314 vs $2884; P < .001), and total healthcare ($7936 vs $6195; P < .001) costs. CONCLUSIONS: Stimulant-treated adolescents with ADHD who switched to or augmented with AAPs had significantly greater drug augmentation, healthcare resource utilization, and costs compared with the non-antipsychotic cohort.

Persistence with nebivolol in the treatment of hypertension: a retrospective claims analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Examine drug persistence by evaluating the hazard of discontinuation and of switching to different antihypertensive drugs in patients initiating treatment with a recently approved ß-blocker, nebivolol, versus other ß-blockers. METHODS: This retrospective analysis included all patients diagnosed with hypertension in the MarketScan Database (January 2007 - December 2008) with at least two medical claims and no prior ß-blocker prescriptions within 6 months of the initial prescription date. Multivariate Cox proportional hazard models (adjusted for baseline differences in demographics, previous use of other antihypertensive medications, initial doses and supply of medication, and number of distinct prescriptions at baseline) were used to assess the hazard of discontinuation, defined as the first prescription gap of ≥30 days, and to assess the hazard of switching to another antihypertensive drug, defined as a prescription fill for another antihypertensive drug within 15 days before and 30 days after discontinuation of the initial ß-blocker. RESULTS: Of the 173,200 patients included in the study population, the adjusted hazard of discontinuation for nebivolol-initiated patients was 8-20% lower than that of patients who initiated treatment with atenolol (hazard ratio [HR] 0.82, p < 0.001), metoprolol (HR 0.91, p < 0.001), carvedilol (HR 0.92, p < 0.001), or other ß-blockers (HR 0.80, p < 0.001). The adjusted hazard of nebivolol-treated patients switching to a different antihypertensive medication was 12-22% lower than that of the other four ß-blocker cohorts (atenolol: HR 0.80, p < 0.001; metoprolol: HR 0.86, p < 0.001; carvedilol: HR 0.88, p < 0.001; other ß-blockers: HR 0.78, p < 0.001). Sensitivity analyses defined discontinuation as prescription gaps of ≥45 days and ≥60 days and showed a lower hazard of discontinuation among patients initiating nebivolol than among patients initiating all other drug cohorts (p < 0.001). LIMITATIONS: Comparisons of non-randomized treatment groups may be confounded by unobserved differences in patients' baseline characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: Initiation with nebivolol was associated with greater persistence than initiation with atenolol, carvedilol, metoprolol, or other ß-blockers.

Clinical outcomes, quality of life, and costs associated with implantation of vagus nerve stimulation therapy in pediatric patients with drug-resistant epilepsy.

BACKGROUND: VNS (Vagus Nerve Stimulation Therapy) is approved in the USA to treat refractory epilepsy as adjunctive to antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) in patients ≥12 years with complex partial seizures. AIMS: To evaluate clinical outcomes, quality-adjusted life years (QALY), and costs associated with VNS in pediatric patients with drug-resistant epilepsy in a real-world setting. METHODS: A retrospective analysis was conducted using Medicaid data (USA). Patients had ≥1 neurologist visits with epilepsy diagnosis (ICD-9 345.xx, 780.3x), ≥1 procedure claims for VNS implantation, ≥1 AEDs, ≥6-months of Pre- and Post-VNS continuous enrollment. Pre-VNS period was 6-months and Post-VNS period extended from implantation until device removal, death, Medicaid disenrollment, or study end (up to 3 years). Incidence rate ratios (IRR) and costs ($2010) were estimated. QALYs were estimated using number of seizure-related events. RESULTS: For patients 1-11 years old (N = 238), hospitalizations and emergency room visits were reduced Post-VNS vs. Pre-VNS (adjusted IRR = 0.73 [95% CI: 0.61-0.88] and 0.74 [95% CI: 0.65-0.83], respectively). Average total healthcare costs were lower Post-VNS vs. Pre-VNS ($18,437 vs. $18,839 quarterly [adjusted p = 0.052]). For patients 12-17 years old (N = 207), hospitalizations and status epilepticus events were reduced Post-VNS vs. Pre-VNS (adjusted IRR = 0.43 [95% CI: 0.34-0.54] and 0.25 [95% CI: 0.16-0.39], respectively). Average total healthcare costs were lower Post-VNS vs. Pre-VNS period ($14,546 vs. $19,695 quarterly [adjusted p = 0.002]). Lifetime QALY gain after VNS was 5.96 (patients 1-11 years) and 4.82 years (patients 12-17 years). CONCLUSIONS: VNS in pediatric patients is associated with decreased resource use and epilepsy-related events, cost savings, and QALY gain.

Clinical and economic impact of vagus nerve stimulation therapy in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy.

We evaluated long-term medical and economic benefits of vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) therapy in drug-resistant epilepsy. A pre-post analysis was conducted using multistate Medicaid data (January 1997-June 2009). One thousand six hundred fifty-five patients with one or more neurologist visits with epilepsy diagnoses (ICD-9 345.xx, 780.3, or 780.39), one or more procedures for vagus nerve stimulator implantation, one or more antiepileptic drugs (AEDs), and 6 or more months of continuous Medicaid enrollment pre- and post-VNS were selected. The pre-VNS period was 6 months. The post-VNS period extended from implantation to device removal, death, Medicaid disenrollment, or study end (up to 3 years). Incidence rate ratios (IRRs) and cost differences ($2009) were estimated. Mean age was 29.4 years. Hospitalizations decreased post-VNS compared with pre-VNS (adjusted IRR=0.59, P<0.001). Grand mal status events decreased post-VNS compared with pre-VNS (adjusted IRR=0.79, P<0.001). Average total health care costs were lower post-VNS than pre-VNS ($18,550 vs $19,945 quarterly, P<0.001). VNS is associated with decreased resource utilization and epilepsy-related clinical events and net cost savings after 1.5 years.