Correction: Parental supervision positively impacts children's economic prospects two decades later: A prospective longitudinal study.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0286218.].

Parental supervision positively impacts children's economic prospects two decades later: A prospective longitudinal study.

IMPORTANCE: Upward income mobility is associated with better health outcomes and reduced stress. However, opportunities are unequally distributed, particularly so for those in rural communities and whose family have lower educational attainment. OBJECTIVE: To test the impact of parental supervision on their children's income two decades later adjusting for parental economic and educational status. DESIGN: This study is a longitudinal, representative cohort study. From 1993-2000, annual assessments of 1,420 children were completed until age 16, then followed up at age 35, 2018-2021, for further assessment. Models tested direct effects of parental supervision on child income, and indirect effects via child educational attainment. SETTING: This study is an ongoing longitudinal population-based study of families in 11 predominately rural counties of the Southeastern U.S. PARTICIPANTS: About 8% of the residents and sample are African American and fewer than 1% are Hispanic. American Indians make up 4% of the population in study but were oversampled to make up 25% of the sample. 49% of the 1,420 participants are female. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: 1258 children and parents were assessed for sex, race/ethnicity, household income, parent educational attainment, family structure, child behavioral problems, and parental supervision. The children were followed up at age 35 to assess their household income and educational attainment. RESULTS: Parental educational attainment, income, and family structure were strongly associated with their children's household income at age 35 (e.g., r = .392, p < .05). Parental supervision of the child was associated with increased household income for the child at age 35, adjusting for SES of the family of origin. Children of parents who did not engage in adequate supervision earned approximately $14,000 less/year (i.e., ~13% of the sample's median household income) than those who did. The association of parental supervision and child income at 35 was mediated by the child's educational attainment. CONCLUSION AND RELEVANCE: This study suggests adequate parental supervision during early adolescence is associated with children's economic prospects two decades later, in part by improving their educational prospects. This is particularly important in areas such as rural Southeast U.S.

Parental perception of mental health needs in young children.

BACKGROUND: There is evidence of unmet psychiatric needs in children under 6. These young children are dependent on their parents to identify their mental health needs. This study tested child and parent associations with parent perception of young child mental health need. METHOD: Parents of 917 children (aged 2-6 years) completed a diagnostic interview about their child assessing depression, anxiety, ODD/CD, ADHD, and impairment. Parents were surveyed about their own depression, anxiety, and asked about their psychiatric impairment. Parents were also asked whether they perceived their child as having a mental health need. RESULTS: Only 38.8% of children who met criteria for a diagnosis were perceived by their parents as having a need, similar to previously studied rates in school-aged children. Perception of need was associated with higher levels of symptoms and impairment. Thresholds for at least half of parents perceiving their child as having a need were relatively high: 19 or more symptoms, or 4 or more impairments. There was evidence of specificity: children with depressive disorders were more likely to be perceived as in need compared with other disorders. In terms of parent factors, more parental depressive symptoms were associated with higher perception of child need when the child had a diagnosis. Parental psychological impairment was associated with higher perception of need when the child had no diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: Most preschool children that meet criteria for a psychiatric disorder are not perceived as needing help by their parents, which is dependent on both child and parent factors.

Association of Parental Incarceration With Psychiatric and Functional Outcomes of Young Adults.

Importance: In 2016, an estimated 8% of US children younger than 18 years had experienced the incarceration of a parent, and rates were substantially higher among children from racial and ethnic minority backgrounds and disadvantaged groups. Little is known about whether parental incarceration during childhood is associated with adult psychiatric problems and functional outcomes. Objective: To examine whether parental incarceration is associated with increased levels of psychiatric diagnosis and poor outcomes in health, legal, financial, and social domains in adulthood. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study used data from the community-representative, prospective, longitudinal Great Smoky Mountains Study. Children and their parents were interviewed up to 8 times from January 1993 to December 2000 (ages 9-16 years; 6674 observations of 1420 participants) using the Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment, which assessed parental incarceration, childhood psychiatric diagnoses, and other adversities. Young adults were followed up at ages 19, 21, 25, and 30 years from January 1999 to December 2015 (4556 observations of 1334 participants) to assess psychiatric diagnoses and functional outcomes indicative of a disrupted transition to adulthood. Data analysis was conducted from June 2018 to June 2019. Results: By age 16 years, 475 participants (weighted percentage, 23.9%) had a parental figure who had been incarcerated, including 259 young men (22.2%) and 216 young women (25.5%). Parental incarceration was associated with higher prevalence of childhood psychiatric diagnoses (eg, any depressive diagnosis: adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 2.5; 95% CI, 1.3-4.6; P = .006; attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: aOR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.0-5.5; P = .06; and conduct disorder: aOR, 2.5; 95% CI, 1.4-4.3; P = .001). After accounting for childhood psychiatric diagnoses and adversity exposure, parental incarceration remained associated with increased odds of having an adult anxiety disorder (aOR, 1.7; 95% CI, 1.0-3.0; P = .04), having an illicit drug use disorder (aOR, 6.6; 95% CI, 2.6-17.0; P < .001), having a felony charge (aOR, 3.4; 95% CI, 1.8-6.5; P < .001), incarceration (aOR, 2.8; 95% CI, 1.4-5.4; P = .003), not completing high school (aOR, 4.4; 95% CI, 2.2-8.8; P < .001), early parenthood (aOR, 1.7; 95% CI, 1.0-3.0; P = .04), and being socially isolated (aOR, 2.2; 95% CI, 1.2-4.0; P = .009). Conclusions and Relevance: This study suggests that parental incarceration is associated with a broad range of psychiatric, legal, financial, and social outcomes during young adulthood. Parental incarceration is a common experience that may perpetuate disadvantage from generation to generation.

Sex Differences in Associations Between Subjective Social Status and C-Reactive Protein in Young Adults.

OBJECTIVE: In middle-aged and older samples, perceived subjective socioeconomic status (SSS) is a marker of social rank that is associated with elevated inflammation and cardiovascular disease risk independent of objective indicators of SES (oSES). Whether SSS is uniquely associated with elevated inflammation during young adulthood and whether these linkages differ by sex have not been studied using a nationally representative sample of young adults. METHODS: Data came from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. At Wave IV, young adults aged mostly 24 to 32 years reported their SSS, oSES, and a range of covariates of both SES and elevated inflammation. Trained fieldworkers assessed medication use, body mass index, and waist circumference, and also collected bloodspots from which high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) was assayed. The sample size for the present analyses was n = 13,236. RESULTS: Descriptive and bivariate analyses revealed a graded association between SSS and hs-CRP (b = -0.072, standard error [SE] = 0.011, p < .001): as SSS declined, mean levels of hs-CRP increased. When oSES indicators were taken into account, this association was no longer significant in women (b = -0.013, SE = 0.019, p = .514). In men, a small but significant SSS-hs-CRP association remained after adjusting for oSES indicators and additional potential confounders of this association in the final models (b = -0.034, SE = 0.011 p = .003; p < .001 for the sex by SSS interaction). CONCLUSIONS: SSS is independently associated with elevated inflammation in young adults. The associations were stronger in men than in women. These data suggest that subjective, global assessments of social rank might play a role in developing adverse health outcomes.

Is very high C-reactive protein in young adults associated with indicators of chronic disease risk?

BACKGROUND: Cases with very high C-reactive protein (CRP>10mg/L) are often dropped from analytic samples in research on risk for chronic physical and mental illness, but this convention could inadvertently result in excluding those most at risk. We tested whether young adults with very high CRP scored high on indicators of chronic disease risk. We also tested intergenerational pathways to and sex-differentiated correlates of very high CRP. METHODS: Data came from Waves I (ages 11-19) and IV (ages 24-34) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (N=13,257). At Wave I, participants' parents reported their own education and health behaviors/health. At Wave IV, young adults reported their socioeconomic status, psychological characteristics, reproductive/health behaviors and health; trained fieldworkers assessed BMI, waist circumference, blood-pressure, and medication use, and collected bloodspots from which high-sensitivity CRP (hs-CRP) was assayed. RESULTS: Logistic regression analyses revealed that many common indicators of chronic disease risk - including parental health/health behaviors reported 14 years earlier - were associated with very high CRP in young adults. Several of these associations attenuated with the inclusion of BMI. More than 75% of young adults with very high CRP were female. Sex differences in associations of some covariates and very high CRP were observed. CONCLUSION: Especially among females, the exclusion of cases with very high CRP could result in an underestimation of "true" associations of CRP with both, chronic disease risk indicators and morbidity/mortality. In many instances, very high CRP could represent an extension of the lower CRP range when it comes to chronic disease risk.