Treatment methods for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia in England: A cost-effectiveness analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the cost-effectiveness of different treatments for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN). DESIGN: A cost-effectiveness analysis based on data available in the literature and expert opinion. SETTING: England. POPULATION: Women treated for CIN. METHODS: We developed a decision-analytic model to simulate the clinical course of 1000 women who received local treatment for CIN and were followed up for 10 years after treatment. In the model we considered surgical complications as well as oncological and reproductive outcomes over the 10-year period. The costs calculated were those incurred by the National Health Service (NHS) of England. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Cost per one CIN2+ recurrence averted (oncological outcome); cost per one preterm birth averted (reproductive outcome); overall cost per one adverse oncological or reproductive outcome averted. RESULTS: For young women of reproductive age, large loop excision of the transformation zone (LLETZ) was the most cost-effective treatment overall at all willingness-to-pay thresholds. For postmenopausal women, LLETZ remained the most cost-effective treatment up to a threshold of £31,500, but laser conisation became the most cost-effective treatment above that threshold. CONCLUSIONS: LLETZ is the most cost-effective treatment for both younger and older women. However, for older women, more radical excision with laser conisation could also be considered if the NHS is willing to spend more than £31,500 to avert one CIN2+ recurrence.

Costs and benefits of scaling psychosocial interventions during the perinatal period in England: A simulation modelling study.

BACKGROUND: Globally, guidance recommends the integration of mental health into maternal and child healthcare to address common maternal mental health problems during the perinatal period. However, implementing this in the real-world requires substantial resource allocations. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to estimate the likely costs and consequences linked to scaling the delivery of treatment (in the form of psychosocial interventions) during the perinatal period. DESIGN: Simulation modelling. SETTING(S): England. METHODS: Costs and consequences were modelled for three scenarios of assumed provision of services, whereby one referred to the projected provision under current government plans, with no additional scaling up of treatment. The other two scenarios referred to additional scaling of treatment: in one scenario, this referred to the provision of treatment by midwives and health visitors trained in the routine enquiry about mental health and delivery of psychosocial interventions; in the other scenario this referred to an expanded provision by primary mental health services. For each scenario and in yearly intervals (covering a ten-year period, 2015 to 2024), unit cots and outcomes were assigned to the activities women were assumed to receive (routine enquiry, assessment, treatment, care coordination). All costs were in 2020 pounds sterling. Data sources for the modelling included: published findings from randomised controlled trials; national unit cost source; national statistics; and expert consultation. RESULTS: If the projected treatment gap was to be addressed, an estimated additional 111,154 (50,031) women would be accessing treatment in 2015 (2024). Estimated total costs (including cost offsets) in the scenario of projected provision under current government plans would be £73.5 million in 2015 and £95.2 million in 2024, whilst quality-adjusted life years gained would be 901 and 928 respectively. Addressing the treatment gap through provision by trained midwives and health visitors could mean additional costs of £7.3 million in 2015 but lower costs of £18.4 million in 2024. The additional quality-adjusted life years gained are estimated at 2096 in 2015 and 1418 in 2024. A scenario in which the treatment gap would be met by primary mental health services was likely to be more costly and delivered less health gains. CONCLUSIONS: Findings from this modelling study suggest that scaling the integration of mental health care into routinely delivered care for women during the perinatal period might be economically viable. REGISTRATION: N/A. TWEETABLE ABSTRACT: Integrating mental health into maternal and child healthcare might generate economic benefits new study by @a_annettemaria and @knappem @CPEC_LSE finds #increasing access to treatment for women with perinatal mental health problems.

Economic analysis of early intervention for autistic children: findings from four case studies in England, Ireland, Italy, and Spain.

BACKGROUND: Many autistic children experience difficulties in their communication and language skills development, with consequences for social development into adulthood, often resulting in challenges over the life-course and high economic impacts for individuals, families, and society. The Preschool Autism Communication Trial (PACT) intervention is effective in terms of improved social communication and some secondary outcomes. A previously published within-trial economic analysis found that results at 13 months did not support its cost-effectiveness. We modeled cost-effectiveness over 6 years and across four European countries. METHODS: Using simulation modeling, we built on economic analyses in the original trial, exploring longer-term cost-effectiveness at 6 years (in England). We adapted our model to undertake an economic analysis of PACT in Ireland, Italy, and Spain. Data on resource use were taken from the original trial and a more recent Irish observational study. RESULTS: PACT is cost-saving over time from a societal perspective, even though we confirmed that, at 13 months post-delivery, PACT is more expensive than usual treatment (across all countries) when given to preschool autistic children. After 6 years, we found that PACT has lower costs than usual treatment in terms of unpaid care provided by parents (in all countries). Also, if we consider only out-of-pocket expenses from an Irish study, PACT costs less than usual treatment. DISCUSSION: PACT may be recommended as a cost-saving early intervention for families with an autistic child.

The economic case for hospital discharge services for people experiencing homelessness in England: An in-depth analysis with different service configurations providing specialist care.

There are long-standing concerns that people experiencing homelessness may not recover well if left unsupported after a hospital stay. This study reports on a study investigating the cost-effectiveness of three different 'in patient care coordination and discharge planning' configurations for adults experiencing homelessness who are discharged from hospitals in England. The first configuration provided a clinical and housing in-reach service during acute care and discharge coordination but with no 'step-down' care. The second configuration provided clinical and housing in-reach, discharge coordination and 'step-down' intermediate care. The third configuration consisted of housing support workers providing in-reach and discharge coordination as well as step-down care. These three configurations were each compared with 'standard care' (control, defined as one visit by the homelessness health nurse before discharge during which patients received an information leaflet on local services). Multiple sources of data and multi-outcome measures were adopted to assess the cost utility of hospital discharge service delivery for the NHS and broader public perspective. Details of 354 participants were collated on service delivery costs (salary, on-costs, capital, overheads and 'hotel' costs, advertising and other indirect costs), the economic consequences for different public services (e.g. NHS, social care, criminal justice, housing, etc.) and health utilities (quality-adjusted-life-years, QALYs). Findings were complex across the configurations, but, on the whole, there was promising evidence suggesting that, with delivery costs similar to those reported for bed-based intermediate care, step-down care secured better health outcomes and improved cost-effectiveness (compared with usual care) within NICE cost-effectiveness recommendations.

Adult safeguarding managers' understandings of self-neglect and hoarding.

Self-neglect and hoarding are behaviours that are hard to define, measure and address. They are more prevalent among older people because of bio-psycho-social factors, which may be exacerbated by advancing age. This paper aims to further understandings of self-neglect and hoarding in England's Care Act 2014 context, drawing on a study involving qualitative interviews with local authority adult safeguarding managers who play an important role in determining interventions with individuals who self-neglect and/or hoard. Online interviews were conducted with adult safeguarding leads and managers from 31 English local authorities in 2021. Interview data were subject to thematic analysis. This paper explores the commonalities and differences in adult safeguarding managers' understandings of the causes and consequences of self-neglect and/or hoarding among older people, which are likely to have tangible impacts on service provision in their local authority, and influencing of wider changes to policies and procedures. Most participants understood these phenomena as caused by a range of bio-psycho-social factors, including chronic physical conditions, bereavement, isolation. A minority took a more clinical or psycho-medical perspective, focusing on mental ill-health, or referred to the social construction of norms of cleanliness and tidiness. Whatever their understanding, by the time such behaviours are brought to the attention of safeguarding professionals a crisis response may be all that is offered. The implications of the findings are that other agencies should be encouraged to provide more early help to older people at risk of self-neglect and/or of developing harmful hoarding behaviours, and that sustained engagement with those affected may help to understand some of the causes of these behaviours to enable effective support or practice interventions.

An innovative outpatient monitor service for gynecological patients in the United Kingdom: Case study evaluation of clinical effectiveness, economic outcomes, patient safety, and service improvement.

BACKGROUND: Failure to attend appointments places a huge strain on health care systems around the world, resulting in poorer care for the patients, waste of staff time and increased waiting times. This study looked at the impact of an Outpatient-Monitor-Service (OMS) on clinical, economic, patient safety and service improvement outcomes in gynaecology patients compared with care as usual (with no access to the OMS). METHODS: We conducted a retrospective match-pair controlled study at a London-based hospital. The cohort included adult women who received either (i) gynecological, (ii) hysteroscopy or (iii) vulval procedures. A cost-consequences analysis compared intervention (who received the OMS) with control (historical cases who did not receive the OMS. Main outcome measures were clinical-effectiveness, NHS-cost, patient safety, and service improvement. RESULTS: The intervention had positive impacts spanning clinical, patient safety and service improvement areas and showed cost saving results for the healthcare in terms of reduced follow-up consultations and did-not-attend occurrences. CONCLUSIONS: The OMS offered by Message Dynamics appears to be a successful digital health technology to monitor gynecological patients' conditions and inform clinical decision making via remote channels, which is particularly relevant in coronavirus disease pandemic.

Structured headache services as the solution to the ill-health burden of headache. 3. Modelling effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of implementation in Europe: findings and conclusions.

BACKGROUND: There have been several calls for estimations of costs and consequences of headache interventions to inform European public-health policies. In a previous paper, in the absence of universally accepted methodology, we developed headache-type-specific analytical models to be applied to implementation of structured headache services in Europe as the health-care solution to headache. Here we apply this methodology and present the findings. METHODS: Data sources were published evidence and expert opinions, including those from an earlier economic evaluation framework using the WHO-CHOICE model. We used three headache-type-specific analytical models, for migraine, tension-type-headache (TTH) and medication-overuse-headache (MOH). We considered three European Region case studies, from Luxembourg, Russia and Spain to include a range of health-care systems, comparing current (suboptimal) care versus target care (structured services implemented, with provider-training and consumer-education). We made annual and 5-year cost estimates from health-care provider and societal perspectives (2020 figures, euros). We expressed effectiveness as healthy life years (HLYs) gained, and cost-effectiveness as incremental cost-effectiveness-ratios (ICERs; cost to be invested/HLY gained). We applied WHO thresholds for cost-effectiveness. RESULTS: The models demonstrated increased effectiveness, and cost-effectiveness (migraine) or cost saving (TTH, MOH) from the provider perspective over one and 5 years and consistently across the health-care systems and settings. From the societal perspective, we found structured headache services would be economically successful, not only delivering increased effectiveness but also cost saving across headache types and over time. The predicted magnitude of cost saving correlated positively with country wage levels. Lost productivity had a major impact on these estimates, but sensitivity analyses showed the intervention remained cost-effective across all models when we assumed that remedying disability would recover only 20% of lost productivity. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study to propose a health-care solution for headache, in the form of structured headache services, and evaluate it economically in multiple settings. Despite numerous challenges, we demonstrated that economic evaluation of headache services, in terms of outcomes and costs, is feasible as well as necessary. Furthermore, it is strongly supportive of the proposed intervention, while its framework is general enough to be easily adapted and implemented across Europe.

Structured headache services as the solution to the ill-health burden of headache. 2. Modelling effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of implementation in Europe: methodology.

BACKGROUND: Health economic evaluations support health-care decision-making by providing information on the costs and consequences of health interventions. No universally accepted methodology exists for modelling effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of interventions designed to close treatment gaps for headache disorders in countries of Europe (or elsewhere). Our aim here, within the European Brain Council's Value-of-Treatment project, was to develop headache-type-specific analytical models to be applied to implementation of structured headache services in Europe as the health-care solution to headache. METHODS: We developed three headache-type-specific decision-analytical models using the WHO-CHOICE framework and adapted these for three European Region country settings (Luxembourg, Russia and Spain), diverse in geographical location, population size, income level and health-care systems and for which we had population-based data. Each model compared current (suboptimal) care vs target care (delivered in accordance with the structured headache services model). Epidemiological and economic data were drawn from studies conducted by the Global Campaign against Headache; data on efficacy of treatments were taken from published randomized controlled trials; assumptions on uptake of treatments, and those made for Healthy Life Year (HLY) calculations and target-care benefits, were agreed with experts. We made annual and 5-year cost estimates from health-care provider (main analyses) and societal (secondary analyses) perspectives (2020 figures, euros). RESULTS: The analytical models were successfully developed and applied to each country setting. Headache-related costs (including use of health-care resources and lost productivity) and health outcomes (HLYs) were mapped across populations. The same calculations were repeated for each alternative (current vs target care). Analyses of the differences in costs and health outcomes between alternatives and the incremental cost-effectiveness ratios are presented elsewhere. CONCLUSIONS: This study presents the first headache-type-specific analytical models to evaluate effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of implementing structured headache services in countries in the European Region. The models are robust, and can assist policy makers in allocating health budgets between interventions to maximize the health of populations.

Structured headache services as the solution to the ill-health burden of headache: 1. Rationale and description

In countries where headache services exist at all, their focus is usually on specialist (tertiary) care. This is clinically and economically inappropriate: most headache disorders can effectively and more efficiently (and at lower cost) be treated in educationally supported primary care. At the same time, compartmentalizing divisions between primary, secondary and tertiary care in many health-care systems create multiple inefficiencies, confronting patients attempting to navigate these levels (the "patient journey") with perplexing obstacles.High demand for headache care, estimated here in a needs-assessment exercise, is the biggest of the challenges to reform. It is also the principal reason why reform is necessary.The structured headache services model presented here by experts from all world regions on behalf of the Global Campaign against Headache is the suggested health-care solution to headache. It develops and refines previous proposals, responding to the challenge of high demand by basing headache services in primary care, with two supporting arguments. First, only primary care can deliver headache services equitably to the large numbers of people needing it. Second, with educational supports, they can do so effectively to most of these people. The model calls for vertical integration between care levels (primary, secondary and tertiary), and protection of the more advanced levels for the minority of patients who need them. At the same time, it is amenable to horizontal integration with other care services. It is adaptable according to the broader national or regional health services in which headache services should be embedded.It is, according to evidence and argument presented, an efficient and cost-effective model, but these are claims to be tested in formal economic analyses.

Averting multiple sclerosis long-term societal and healthcare costs: The Value of Treatment (VoT) project.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The recent report on Value-of-Treatment (VoT) project highlights the need for early diagnosis-intervention, integrated, seamless care underpinning timely care pathways and access to best treatments. The VoT-multiple-sclerosis (MS) economic case study analysis aimed to estimate the effectiveness/cost-effectiveness of both early treatment and reducing MS risk factors (e.g. smoking and vitamin D insufficiency). METHODS: A series of decision analytical modellings were developed and applied to estimate the cost-effectiveness of: (1) reducing the conversion from clinically-isolated-syndrome (CIS) to clinically-definite-MS (CDMS); (2) smoking cessation and increase of 25 hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) serum level. Both (1) and (2) considered socioeconomic impact on averted MS disability progression. Costs were reported for societal and healthcare provider perspectives (pending on data across nations; Euros). Effectiveness was expressed as Quality-Adjusted-Life-Years (QALYs) gains. Long term (25, 30, 40,50-years) and short (one-year) timelines were considered for (1) and (2), respectively. RESULTS: Early treatment was cost-effective for the health care provider and both cost-effective/cost-saving for the society across time-horizons and nations. Smoking cessation and an increase of 25(OH)D in MS patients were both cost-effective/cost-saving across nations. CONCLUSIONS: To the best of our knowledge, our work provides the first economic evidence to base appropriate public health interventions to reduce the MS burden in Europe.

Hospital readmission among people experiencing homelessness in England: a cohort study of 2772 matched homeless and housed inpatients.

BACKGROUND: Inpatients experiencing homelessness are often discharged to unstable accommodation or the street, which may increase the risk of readmission. METHODS: We conducted a cohort study of 2772 homeless patients discharged after an emergency admission at 78 hospitals across England between November 2013 and November 2016. For each individual, we selected a housed patient who lived in a socioeconomically deprived area, matched on age, sex, hospital, and year of discharge. Counts of emergency readmissions, planned readmissions, and Accident and Emergency (A&E) visits post-discharge were derived from national hospital databases, with a median of 2.8 years of follow-up. We estimated the cumulative incidence of readmission over 12 months, and used negative binomial regression to estimate rate ratios. RESULTS: After adjusting for health measured at the index admission, homeless patients had 2.49 (95% CI 2.29 to 2.70) times the rate of emergency readmission, 0.60 (95% CI 0.53 to 0.68) times the rate of planned readmission and 2.57 (95% CI 2.41 to 2.73) times the rate of A&E visits compared with housed patients. The 12-month risk of emergency readmission was higher for homeless patients (61%, 95% CI 59% to 64%) than housed patients (33%, 95% CI 30% to 36%); and the risk of planned readmission was lower for homeless patients (17%, 95% CI 14% to 19%) than for housed patients (30%, 95% CI 28% to 32%). While the risk of emergency readmission varied with the reason for admission for housed patients, for example being higher for admissions due to cancers than for those due to accidents, the risk was high across all causes for homeless patients. CONCLUSIONS: Hospital patients experiencing homelessness have high rates of emergency readmission that are not explained by health. This highlights the need for discharge arrangements that address their health, housing and social care needs.

Value assessment of disease-modifying therapies for Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis: HTA evidence from seven OECD countries.

This study systematically compares HTA recommendations on a number of disease-modifying therapies for patients with Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis. We analysed publicly available HTA reports for nine medicine-indication pairs across seven OECD countries using a methodological framework enabling systematic analysis of HTA recommendations. The analysis was conducted based on a number of value dimensions, including clinical and economic variables, as well as several other dimensions of value beyond cost-effectiveness. The material was qualitatively and quantitatively coded following the different stages of HTA decision-making process. Fifty-seven medicine-indication pairs were assessed across the study countries. Of those, eight medicine indication-pairs reported diverging HTA recommendations. Although HTA recommendations were based on the same evidence submitted in most cases, significant variations were identified in interpretation and acceptance of evidence resulting in different uncertainties raised and different ways of addressing them. Uncertainties arose both in terms of the clinical and the economic evidence, including the design of key trials or the data quality in economic models. Beyond costs and effects, additional dimensions of value had an impact in the direction of recommendations, however with different magnitude across countries. We show that there is heterogeneity across countries in HTA for evaluating DMTs for RRMS with a lack of standardised methods in evaluating clinical and economic evidence and the use of social value judgments to inform decision-making.

Using IMPrESS to guide policy change in multiple sclerosis.

The International MultiPlE Sclerosis Study (IMPrESS) studied the significant impact of multiple sclerosis (MS) on the health and well-being of both people with the disease and their caregivers, along with its broader socioeconomic impact. Results confirmed that there is an urgent need to achieve better outcomes for people with MS. This paper uses results from the IMPrESS to present new international evidence on the socioeconomic burden of MS and discuss the merits of a likely paradigm shift in the management of MS towards the use of better (and more accurate) diagnostic follow-up to monitor disease progression and the earlier use of disease-modifying treatments (DMTs) to achieve better clinical, quality-of-life and socioeconomic results for individuals.

A cluster randomised control trial to evaluate the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of the Italian medicines use review (I-MUR) for asthma patients.

BACKGROUND: The economic burden of asthma, which relates to the degree of control, is €5 billion annually in Italy. Pharmacists could help improve asthma control, reducing this burden. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of Medicines Use Reviews provided by community pharmacists in asthma. METHODS: This cluster randomised, multi-centre, controlled trial in adult patients with asthma was conducted in 15 of the 20 regions of Italy between September 2014 and July 2015. After stratification by region, community pharmacists were randomly allocated to group A (trained in and delivered the intervention at baseline) or B (training and delivery 3 months later), using computerised random number generation in blocks of 10. Each recruited up to five patients, with both groups followed for 9 months. The intervention consisted of a systematic, structured face-to-face consultation with a pharmacist, covering asthma symptoms, medicines used, attitude towards medicines and adherence, recording pharmacist-identified pharmaceutical care issues (PCIs). The primary outcome was asthma control, assessed using the Asthma-Control-Test (ACT) score (ACT ≥ 20 represents good control). Secondary outcomes were: number of active ingredients, adherence, cost-effectiveness compared with usual care. Although blinding was not possible for either pharmacists or patients, assessment of outcomes was conducted by researchers blind to group allocation. RESULTS: Numbers of pharmacists and patients enrolled were 283 (A = 136; B = 147) and 1263 (A = 600; B = 663), numbers completing were 201 (A = 97; B = 104) and 816 (A = 400; B = 416), respectively. Patients were similar in age and gender and 56.13% (458/816) had poor/partial asthma control. Pharmacists identified 1256 PCIs (mean 1.54/patient), mostly need for education, monitoring and potentially ineffective therapy. Median ACT score at baseline differed between groups (A = 19, B = 18; p < 0.01). Odds ratio for improved asthma control was 1.76 (95% CI 1.33-2.33) and number needed to treat 10 (95% CI 6-28). Number of active ingredients reduced by 7.9% post-intervention (p < 0.01). Adherence improved by 35.4% 3 months post-intervention and 40.0% at 6 months (p < 0.01). The probability of the intervention being more cost-effective than usual care was 100% at 9 months. CONCLUSIONS: This community pharmacist-based intervention demonstrated both effectiveness and cost-effectiveness. It has since been implemented as the first community pharmacy cognitive service in Italy. TRIAL REGISTRATION: TRN: ISRCTN72438848 (registered 5th January 2015, retrospectively).

What, who and when? Incorporating a discrete choice experiment into an economic evaluation.

BACKGROUND: Economic evaluation focuses on Quality-Adjusted-Life-Years (QALYs) as the main valuation method. However, it is well known that factors beyond health related quality of life are important to patients and the public. Whilst discrete-choice-experiments (DCE) have been extensively used to value such factors, their incorporation within an economic evaluation framework is limited. This study is the first to incorporate patient preferences for factors beyond QALYs into an economic evaluation and compare results with the standard cost-per-QALY approach, using randomised-controlled-trial (RCT) participants. METHODS: Costings, clinical-effectiveness (appropriateness-of-treatment), QALYs and patient satisfaction data were collected at baseline and 12-month follow-up for a new pharmacy-service within a randomised-controlled-trial. Trial participants who replied to the follow-up survey and had not subsequently withdrawn from the study were mailed a DCE questionnaire at 24-months. WTP for the standard and new service was derived from the DCE. Results from QALYs and the DCE were compared. RESULTS: At 12 months, costs, clinical-effectiveness and QALYs did not differ between the intervention and control; however there was a significant increase in satisfaction in the intervention. The DCE valued this increased satisfaction in the intervention (positive net-benefit). The longer the time patients experienced the new service the greater the reported net-benefit. CONCLUSION: When incorporating a DCE into an economic evaluation a number of questions are raised: what factors should be valued, whose values (trial-groups vs. all-trial-population) and when should they be elicited (still-receiving-the-intervention or afterwards). Consideration should also be given to status quo bias.

Survey of patients' experiences and perceptions of care provided by nurse and pharmacist independent prescribers in primary care.

BACKGROUND: In the United Kingdom, nurses and pharmacists who have undertaken additional post-registration training can prescribe medicines for any medical condition within their competence (non-medical prescribers, NMPs), but little is known about patients' experiences and perceptions of this service. OBJECTIVE: to obtain feedback from primary care patients on the impact of prescribing by nurse independent prescribers (NIPs) and pharmacist independent prescribers (PIPs) on experiences of the consultation, the patient-professional relationship, access to medicines, quality of care, choice, knowledge, patient-reported adherence and control of their condition. DESIGN: Two cross-sectional postal surveys. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Patients prescribed for by either NIPs or PIPs in six general practices from different regions in England. RESULTS: 30% of patients responded (294/975; 149/525 NIPs; 145/450 PIPs). Most said they were very satisfied with their last visit (94%; 87%), they were told as much as they wanted to know about their medicines (88%; 80%), and felt the independent prescriber really understood their point of view (87%; 75%). They had a good relationship with (89%; 79%) and confidence in (84%; 77%) their NMP. When comparing NMP and doctor prescribing services, most patients reported no difference in their experience of care provided, including access to it, control of condition, support for adherence, quality and safety of care. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Patients had positive perceptions and experience from their NMP visit. NMPs were well received, and patients' responses indicated the establishment of rapport. They did not express a strong preference for care provided by either their non-medical or medical prescriber.

Do cancer-specific websites meet patient's information needs?

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate commonly used cancer websites' information provision, we developed and applied an Information Comprehensiveness Tool to breast and prostate cancer websites. METHODS: We first collated questions from a systematic literature review on patient information needs. We then classified the questions in terms of spectrum of care, theme, and nature of question. "Breast cancer" and "prostate cancer" were typed into Google, and websites listed on the first page of results were selected. Two researchers, blind to each others' scores, assessed the same websites using the coding system. Each question was scored on a 3-point scale as not (0%), partially (50%) and fully (100%) answered by two researchers. Average scores were calculated across all questions. Inter-rater reliability was assessed. RESULTS: We identified 79 general, 5 breast, and 5 prostate cancer questions. Inter-rater reliability was good, with an intraclass coefficient of 0.756 (95% CIs 0.729-0.781). 17 questions were not answered thoroughly by any website. Questions about "future planning", "monitoring", and "decision-making" were discussed least. Biomedical questions scored highest. CONCLUSIONS: More comprehensive information needs to be provided on breast and prostate cancer websites. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: This ICT can improve cancer information online and enable patients to engage more actively regarding their information needs.

Valuing benefits to inform a clinical trial in pharmacy : do differences in utility measures at baseline affect the effectiveness of the intervention?

BACKGROUND: The generic health-related quality-of-life (HR-QOL) utility measures the EQ-5D and SF-6D are both commonly used to inform healthcare policy developments. However, their application to pharmacy practice is limited and the optimal method to inform policy developments is unknown. OBJECTIVES: Our objective was to test the sensitivity of the EQ-5D and SF-6D within pharmacy when measuring whether changes in health status or other co-variates at baseline affect the effectiveness of the intervention at follow-up. A further objective was to consider the implications of the findings for pharmacy research and policy. METHODS: The EQ-5D and SF-6D utility measures were employed within a randomized controlled trial (RCT) of community pharmacy-led medicines management for patients with coronary heart disease. The intervention covered a baseline visit with the potential for follow-up. Simultaneous quantile regression assessed the impact of the intervention on both EQ-5D and SF-6D measures at follow-up, controlling for baseline health, appropriateness of treatment, personal characteristics and self-reported satisfaction. RESULTS: No statistically significant difference in HR-QOL across the intervention and control groups at follow-up was reported for either measure. Increased health gain was however associated with the baseline utility score (with the EQ-5D more sensitive for those in worse health) and the appropriateness of treatment, but not patient characteristics or self-reported satisfaction. CONCLUSION: Neither generic measure detected a gain in HR-QOL as a result of the introduction of an innovative pharmacy-based service. This finding supports other work in the area of pharmacy, where health gains have not changed following interventions. Disease-specific utility measures should be investigated as an alternative to generic approaches such as the EQ-5D and SF-6D. Given that the RCT found an increase in self-reported satisfaction, broader measures of benefit that value patient experiences, such as contingent valuation and discrete-choice experiments, should also be considered in pharmacy.

What determines patient preferences for treating low risk basal cell carcinoma when comparing surgery vs imiquimod? A discrete choice experiment survey from the SINS trial.

BACKGROUND: The SINS trial (Controlled Clinical Trials ISRCTN48755084; Eudract No. 2004-004506-24) is a randomised controlled trial evaluating long term success of excisional surgery vs. imiquimod 5% cream for low risk nodular and superficial basal cell carcinoma (BCC). The trial included a discrete choice experiment questionnaire to explore patient preferences of a cream versus surgery for the treatment of their skin cancer. METHODS: The self-completed questionnaire was administered at baseline to 183 participants, measuring patients' strength of preferences when choosing either alternative 'surgery' or 'imiquimod cream' instead of a fixed 'current situation' option (of surgical excision as standard practice in UK). The treatments were described according to: cost, chance of complete clearance, side effects and appearance. Participants had to choose between various scenarios. Analysis was performed using a mixed logit model, which took into account the impact of previous BCC treatment and sample preference variability. RESULTS: The analysis showed that respondents preferred 'imiquimod cream' to their 'current situation' or 'surgery', regardless of previous experience of BCC symptoms and treatment. Respondents were more likely to be worried about their cosmetic outcomes and side effects they might experience over and above their chance of clearance and cost. Those with no experience of surgery (compared with experience) valued more the choice of 'imiquimod cream' (£1013 vs £781). All treatment characteristics were significant determinants of treatment choice, and there was significant variability in the population preferences for all of them. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with BCC valued more 'imiquimod cream' than alternative 'surgery' options, and all treatment characteristics were important for their choice of care. Understanding how people with a BCC value alternative interventions may better inform the development of health care interventions.

Valuing the extended role of prescribing pharmacist in general practice: results from a discrete choice experiment.

OBJECTIVES: To quantify patients' preferences for new pharmacist independent prescribing services in general practice for managing common existing long-term conditions compared with usual medical prescribing. METHODS: A discrete choice experiment cross-sectional survey was conducted in five general practices in England (October-November 2009). Four service attributes reported on the length of consultation and aspects of patient-professional interaction. A choice between three alternatives-novel pharmacist independent prescribing service ("prescribing pharmacist"), "own (family) doctor" service, and "available (family) doctor" service-was presented. Alternative regression models were compared according to their goodness of fit, and the preferred one was used to inform policy analysis. RESULTS: A total of 451 patients completed questionnaires. Respondents preferred a "pharmacist" or "own doctor" compared with "available doctor," with a larger value given to own doctor. All attributes on patient-professional interaction were important in choosing how to manage diagnosed hypertension, while the "length of consultation" (P = 0.42) did not have any impact. The impact of introducing a pharmacist prescribing service into a general practice setting was estimated from these findings. Patients' preferences suggested that about 16% of consultations with a patient's own doctor can be switched to a prescribing pharmacist instead. Although there is a stronger preference for seeing own doctor, alternative combinations of attribute levels can be used to compensate and reconfigure a more preferred prescribing pharmacist service. CONCLUSIONS: The pharmacist service is valued by patients as an alternative to doctor prescribing in primary care and therefore represents an acceptable form of service delivery when informing policy.