Challenges facing mental health systems arising from the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from 14 European and North American countries.

We assessed challenges that the COVID-19 pandemic presented for mental health systems and the responses to these challenges in 14 countries in Europe and North America. Experts from each country filled out a structured questionnaire with closed- and open-ended questions between January and June 2021. We conducted thematic analysis to investigate the qualitative responses to open-ended questions, and we summarized the responses to closed-ended survey items on changes in telemental health policies and regulations. Findings revealed that many countries grappled with the rising demand for mental health services against a backdrop of mental health provider shortages and challenges responding to workforce stress and burnout. All countries in our sample implemented new policies or initiatives to strengthen mental health service delivery - with more than two-thirds investing to bolster their specialized mental health care sector. There was a universal shift to telehealth to deliver a larger portion of mental health services in all 14 countries, which was facilitated by changes in national regulations and policies; 11 of the 14 participating countries relaxed regulations and 10 of 14 countries made changes to reimbursement policies to facilitate telemental health care. These findings provide a first step to assess the long-term challenges and re-organizational effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health systems in Europe and North America.

Oral health care in Europe: Financing, access and provision.

With growing awareness of the large burden of oral diseases and how limited coverage affects both access and affordability, oral health policy has been receiving increased attention in recent years. This culminated in the adoption of the WHO resolution on Oral Health in 2021, which urges Member States to better integrate oral health into their universal health coverage and noncommunicable disease agendas. This study investigates major patterns and developments in oral health status, financing, coverage, access, and service provision of oral health care in 31 European countries. While most countries cover oral health care for vulnerable population groups, the level of statutory coverage varies widely across Europe resulting in different coverage and financing schemes for the adult population. On average, one third of dental care spending is borne by public sources and the remaining part is paid out-of-pocket or by voluntary health insurance. This has important ramifications for financial protection and access to care, leaving many dental problems untreated. Overall, unmet needs for dental care are higher than for other types of care and particularly affect low-income groups. Dental care is undergoing various structural changes. The number of dentists is increasing, and the composition of the health workforce is starting to change in many countries. Dental care is increasingly provided in group practices and by practices that are part of private equity firms. Although there are (early) signs of a shift towards more preventive therapies and policies of oral diseases, dental care overall remains focused on treatment. A lack of data affects all areas of oral health care. Current health information systems only collect very few indicators on oral health and oral health care. An improved evidence base would allow more meaningful assessments and comparisons of oral health systems performance. This in turn would allow better informed policy decisions and enable better targeted and more effective oral health interventions.

Oral health care in Europe: financing, access and provision

With growing awareness of the large burden of oral diseases and how limited coverage affects both access and affordability, oral health policy has been receiving increased attention in recent years. This culminated in the adoption of the WHO resolution on Oral Health in 2021, which urges Member States to better integrate oral health into their universal health coverage and noncommunicable disease agendas. This study investigates major patterns and developments in oral health status, financing, coverage, access, and service provision of oral health care in 31 European countries. While most countries cover oral health care for vulnerable population groups, the level of statutory coverage varies widely across Europe resulting in different coverage and financing schemes for the adult population.

Exploring variation of coverage and access to dental care for adults in 11 European countries: a vignette approach.

BACKGROUND: Oral health, coupled with rising awareness on the impact that limited dental care coverage has on oral health and general health and well-being, has received increased attention over the past few years. The purpose of the study was to compare the statutory coverage and access to dental care for adult services in 11 European countries using a vignette approach. METHODS: We used three patient vignettes to highlight the differences of the dimensions of coverage and access to dental care (coverage, cost-sharing and accessibility). The three vignettes describe typical care pathways for patients with the most common oral health conditions (caries, periodontal disease, edentulism). The vignettes were completed by health services researchers knowledgeable on dental care, dentists, or teams consisting of a health systems expert working together with dental specialists. RESULTS: Completed vignettes were received from 11 countries: Bulgaria, Estonia, France, Germany, Republic of Ireland (Ireland), Lithuania, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia and Sweden. While emergency dental care, tooth extraction and restorative care for acute pain due to carious lesions are covered in most responding countries, root canal treatment, periodontal care and prosthetic restoration often require cost-sharing or are entirely excluded from the benefit basket. Regular dental visits are also limited to one visit per year in many countries. Beyond financial barriers due to out-of-pocket payments, patients may experience very different physical barriers to accessing dental care. The limited availability of contracted dentists (especially in rural areas) and the unequal distribution and lack of specialised dentists are major access barriers to public dental care. CONCLUSIONS: According to the results, statutory coverage of dental care varies across European countries, while access barriers are largely similar. Many dental services require substantial cost-sharing in most countries, leading to high out-of-pocket spending. Socioeconomic status is thus a main determinant for access to dental care, but other factors such as geography, age and comorbidities can also inhibit access and affect outcomes. Moreover, coverage in most oral health systems is targeted at treatment and less at preventative oral health care.

Tackling the COVID-19 pandemic: Initial responses in 2020 in selected social health insurance countries in Europe☆.

Countries with social health insurance (SHI) systems display some common defining characteristics - pluralism of actors and strong medical associations - that, in dealing with crisis times, may allow for common learnings. This paper analyses health system responses during the COVID-19 pandemic in eight countries representative of SHI systems in Europe (Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Slovenia and Switzerland). Data collection and analysis builds on the methodology and content in the COVID-19 Health System Response Monitor (HSRM) up to November 2020. We find that SHI funds were, in general, neither foreseen as major stakeholders in crisis management, nor were they represented in crisis management teams. Further, responsibilities in some countries shifted from SHI funds to federal governments. The overall organisation and governance of SHI systems shaped how countries responded to the challenges of the pandemic. For instance, coordinated ambulatory care often helped avoid overburdening hospitals. Decentralisation among local authorities may however represent challenges with the coordination of policies, i.e. coordination costs. At the same time, bottom-up self-organisation of ambulatory care providers is supported by decentralised structures. Providers also increasingly used teleconsultations, which may remain part of standard practice. It is recommended to involve SHI funds actively in crisis management and in preparing for future crisis to increase health system resilience.

Balancing financial incentives during COVID-19: A comparison of provider payment adjustments across 20 countries.

Provider payment mechanisms were adjusted in many countries in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Our objective was to review adjustments for hospitals and healthcare professionals across 20 countries. We developed an analytical framework distinguishing between payment adjustments compensating income loss and those covering extra costs related to COVID-19. Information was extracted from the Covid-19 Health System Response Monitor (HSRM) and classified according to the framework. We found that income loss was not a problem in countries where professionals were paid by salary or capitation and hospitals received global budgets. In countries where payment was based on activity, income loss was compensated through budgets and higher fees. New FFS payments were introduced to incentivize remote services. Payments for COVID-19 related costs included new fees for out- and inpatient services but also new PD and DRG tariffs for hospitals. Budgets covered the costs of adjusting wards, creating new (ICU) beds, and hiring staff. We conclude that public payers assumed most of the COVID-19-related financial risk. In view of future pandemics policymakers should work to increase resilience of payment systems by: (1) having systems in place to rapidly adjust payment systems; (2) being aware of the economic incentives created by these adjustments such as cost-containment or increasing the number of patients or services, that can result in unintended consequences such as risk selection or overprovision of care; and (3) periodically evaluating the effects of payment adjustments on access and quality of care.

Das österreichische Gesundheitssystem: Akteure, Daten, Analysen

Die vorliegende Analyse des österreichischen Gesundheitssystems beleuchtet aktuelle Entwicklungen in den Bereichen Organisation,Verwaltung, Finanzierung, Versorgung, Reformen und Leistungsfähigkeit des Gesundheitssystems. Die sich seit 2013 in Umsetzung befindliche große Reform steht dabei im Mittelpunkt. Das zentrale Anliegen dieser Reform, in deren Rahmen ein neues Steuerungssystem eingeführt wurde, ist die Stärkung der Koordination und Zusammenarbeit verschiedener Regierungsebenen und Selbstverwaltungsorgane durch die Förderungeiner gemeinsamen Planung und Entscheidungsfindung sowie in Ansätzen auch einer gemeinsamen Finanzierung. Trotz dieser Anstrengungen ist die organisatorische und finanzielle Struktur des österreichischenGesundheitssystems nach wie vor komplex und uneinheitlich. Die österreichische Bevölkerung weist einen guten Gesundheitszustand auf. Die Lebenserwartung bei Geburt liegt über dem EU-Durchschnitt und die niedrige vermeidbare Sterblichkeit zeigt, dass das Gesundheitsweseneffektiver ist als in den meisten EU-Ländern. Dennoch ist die Zahl der Menschen, die an Herz-Kreislauf-Erkrankungen und an Krebs sterben, imVergleich zum EU-28-Durchschnitt hoch. Tabak- und Alkoholkonsum stellen die größten Gesundheitsrisikofaktoren dar. Der Tabakkonsum ist im letzten Jahrzehnt nicht wie in den meisten EU-Ländern zurückgegangen und liegt aktuell deutlich über dem EU-28-Durchschnitt. In Bezug auf die Leistungsfähigkeit bietet das österreichischeGesundheitssystem einen guten und niederschwelligen Zugang zu Gesundheitsleistungen. Die österreichische Bevölkerung verzeichnet einen der niedrigsten unerfüllten Bedarfe an medizinischer Versorgunginnerhalb der EU. Praktisch die gesamte Bevölkerung ist durch die soziale Krankenversicherung abgesichert und hat Zugang zu einem breitgefächerten Leistungsangebot. Dennoch könnten die zunehmenden Unterschiedezwischen der Anzahl an Vertragsärzten und Wahlärzten zu sozialen und regionalen Ungleichheiten beim Zugang zur Gesundheitsversorgung beitragen. Das österreichische Gesundheitssystem ist relativ kostenintensiv. Es ist stark auf die intramurale Versorgung fokussiert, was sich an einer hohen Nutzung stationärer Leistungen und einem Ungleichgewicht in der Ressourcenallokation zwischen dem Krankenhaussektor und demextramuralen Sektor zeigt. Daher zielen die laufenden Reformen darauf ab, das Wachstum der Gesundheitsausgaben der öffentlichen Hand durch eine Ausgabenobergrenze zu senken und die übermäßige Nutzung stationärer Leistungen zu verringern. Die Effizienz der intramuralen Versorgung hat sich während der Reformperiode verbessert, jedoch stellt die fragmentierteFinanzierung zwischen dem intra- und dem extramuralen Sektor nach wie vor eine Herausforderung dar. Aktuelle Bemühungen, die darauf abzielen, die Primärversorgung nach neuem Modell flächendeckend auszubauen, sindein wichtiger Schritt, um Tätigkeiten aus dem großen und kostenintensivenKrankenhaussektor zu verlagern und die Qualifikationsprofile undEinsatzbereiche der medizinischen Fachkräfte zu erweitern.

Austria: Health System Review.

This analysis of the Austrian health system reviews recent developments in organization and governance, health financing, health care provision, health reforms and health system performance. Two major reforms implemented in 2013 and 2017 are among the main issues today. The central aim of the reforms that put in place a new governance system was to strengthen coordination and cooperation between different levels of government and self-governing bodies by promoting joint planning, decision-making and financing. Yet despite these efforts, the Austrian health system remains complex and fragmented in its organizational and financial structure. The Austrian population has a good level of health. Life expectancy at birth is above the EU average and low amenable mortality rates indicate that health care is more effective than in most EU countries. Yet, the number of people dying from cardiovascular diseases and cancer is high compared to the EU-28 average. Tobacco and alcohol represent the major health risk factors. Tobacco consumption has not declined over the last decade like in most other EU countries and lies well above the EU-28 average. In terms of performance, the Austrian health system provides good access to health care services. Austrias residents report the lowest levels of unmet needs for medical care across the EU. Virtually all the population is covered by social health insurances and enjoys a broad benefit basket. Yet, rising imbalances between the numbers of contracted and non-contracted physicians may contribute to social and regional inequalities in accessing care. The Austrian health system is relatively costly. It has a strong focus on inpatient care as characterized by high hospital utilization and imbalances in resource allocation between the hospital and ambulatory care sector. The ongoing reforms therefore aim to bring down publicly financed health expenditure growth with a global budget cap and reduce overutilization of hospital care. Efficiency of inpatient care has improved over the reform period but the fragmented financing between the inpatient and ambulatory sector remain a challenge. Current reforms to strengthen primary health care are an important step to further shift activities out of the large and costly hospital sector and improve skill mix within the health workforce.

Austria: health system review

This analysis of the Austrian health system reviews recent developments in organization and governance, health financing, health care provision, health reforms and health system performance. Two major reforms implemented in 2013 and 2017 are among the main issues today. The central aim of the reforms that put in place a new governance system was to strengthen coordination and cooperation between different levels of government and self-governing bodies by promoting joint planning,decision-making and financing. Yet despite these efforts, the Austrian health system remains complex and fragmented in its organizational and financial structure.The Austrian population has a good level of health. Life expectancy at birth is above the EU average and low amenable mortality rates indicate that health care is more effective than in most EU countries. Yet, the number of people dying from cardiovascular diseases and cancer is high compared to the EU28 average. Tobacco and alcohol represent the major health risk factors. Tobacco consumption has not declined over the last decade like in most other EU countries and lies well above the EU28 average. In terms of performance, the Austrian health system provides good access to health care services. Austria’s residents report the lowest levels of unmet needs for medical care across the EU. Virtually all the population is covered by social health insurances and enjoys a broad benefit basket. Yet, rising imbalances between the numbers of contracted and non-contracted physicians may contribute to social and regional inequalities in accessing care. The Austrian health system is relatively costly. It has a strong focus on inpatient care as characterized by high hospital utilization and imbalances in resource allocation between the hospital and ambulatory care sector. The ongoing reforms therefore aim to bring down publicly financed health expenditure growth with a global budget cap and reduce overutilization of hospital care. Efficiency of inpatient care has improved over the reform period but the fragmented financing between the inpatient and ambulatory sector remain a challenge. Current reforms to strengthen primary health care are an important step to further shift activities out of the large and costly hospital sector and improve skill mix within the health workforce.

The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia: Health System Review.

This analysis of the health system of the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia reviews recent developments in organization and governance, health financing, health care provision, health reforms and health system performance. The country has made important progress during its transition from a socialist system to a market-based system, particularly in reforming the organization, financing and delivery of health care and establishing a mix of private and public providers. Though total health care expenditure has risen in absolute terms in recent decades, it has consistently fallen as share of GDP, and high levels of private health expenditure remain. Despite this, the health of the population has improved over the last decades, with life expectancy and mortality rates for both adults and children reaching similar levels to those in ex-communist EU countries, though death rates caused by unhealthy behaviour remain high. Inheriting a large health infrastructure, good public health services and well-distributed health service coverage after independence in 1991, the country re-built a social health insurance system with a broad benefit package. Primary care providers were privatized and new private hospitals were allowed to enter the market. In recent years, the country reformed the organization of care delivery to better incorporate both public and private providers in an integrated system. Significant efficiency gains were reached with a pioneering health information system that has reduced waiting times and led to a better coordination of care. This multi-modular e-health system has the potential to further reduce existing inefficiencies and to generate evidence for assessment and research. Despite this progress, satisfaction with health care delivery is very mixed with low satisfaction levels with public providers. The public hospital sector in particular is characterized by inefficient organization, financing and provision of health care; and many professionals move to other countries and to the private sector. Future challenges include sustainable planning and management of human resources as well as enhancing quality and efficiency of care through reform of hospital financing and organization.

The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia: health system review

This publication reviews recent developments in the organization and governance of the health system, health financing, health care provision, health reforms and health system performance of the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. The country made important progress during its transition from a socialist system to a market-based system. Though total health expenditure has risen in absolute terms in recent decades, it has consistently fallen as a share of GDP, and high levels of private health expenditure remain. Despite this, population health has improved, with life expectancy and mortality rates for both adults and children reaching similar levels to those in the former communist EU countries. Inheriting a large health infrastructure, good public health services and well distributed health service coverage after independence in 1991, the country rebuilt a social health insurance system with a broad benefit package. Primary care providers were privatized and new private hospitals were allowed to enter the market. In recent years, the country reformed the organization of care delivery to better incorporate both public and private providers in an integrated system. Significant efficiency gains were reached with a pioneering health information system that has reduced waiting times and led to a better coordination of care. This multi-modular e-health system has the potential to further reduce existing inefficiencies and to generate evidence for assessment and research. Future challenges include sustainable planning and management of human resources as well as enhancing quality and efficiency of care through reform of hospital financing and organization.

Поранешна Југословенска Република Македонија: Преглед на здравствениот систем

Оваа анализа на здравствениот систем во поранешната југословенскарепублика Македонија, прави преглед на организацијата иуправувањето на здравственото финансирање, обезбедувањетоздравствена заштита, здравствените реформи и перформансите наздравствениот систем. Земјата има направено значаен напредок за време натранзицијата од социјалистички кон пазарно ориентиран систем. Иако во последнитедецении, вкупните здравствени трошоци се зголемени како апсолутнавредност, тие бележат константно опаѓање како процент од БДП, додекаприватните здравствени трошоци (плаќањата од џеб) и натаму се високи. Покрај ова, се забележува подобрување на здравјето кај населението низпоследните дeкади, достигнувајќи ниво на вредности за очекуваниотживотен век и стапките на морталитет за возрасни и за деца, сличен наоние во поранешните комунистички ЕУ земји, но со сé уште високи стапкина смртност предизвикана од нездраво однесување. Наследувајќи голема здравствена инфраструктура, добри услуги за јавноздравје и добра покриеност со здравствени услуги, по независноста во 1991година, земјата успеа одново да го изгради системот на социјално здравствено осигурување со широк основен пакет. Давателите на услуги во примарната здравствена заштита беа приватизирани, а приватниот капитал влезена пазарот преку нови приватни болници. Во последните години, земјата јареформираше организацијата на здравствени услуги во насока на подобравклученост на јавните и на приватните даватели на услуги во еден интегриран систем. Значајни придобивки во ефикасноста се постигнати со иновативниот здравствен информациски систем кој ги намали листите на чекањеи овозможи подобра координација во здравствената заштита. Овој, мултимодуларен електронски здравствен систем, има потенцијал за понатамошно намалување на постоечката неефикасност, како и можност за генерирањедокази што ќе служат за различни проценки и истражувања. Идните предизвици вклучуваат одржливо планирање и управување со човечките ресурси, како и поттикнувањена квалитетот и ефикасноста на здравствената заштита преку реформи вофинансирањето и организацијата на болниците.

Assessment of spontaneously occurring periodic limb movements in sleep in the rat.

OBJECTIVE: Periodic limb movements in sleep (PLMS) are often associated with the restless legs syndrome (RLS). Although the dopaminergic system seems to be involved, the pathophysiology of PLMS and RLS is still obscure. The objective of this study is to explore whether a PLMS-like phenomenon can be observed in rodents in order to elucidate the underlying mechanisms. METHODS: In a group of young and old rats (1.4-1.6 and 16.2-20.5 months, respectively), sleep-wake behavior was recorded and hindlimb movements were detected by means of a magneto-inductive device during two 12-h light periods. Furthermore, in the old rats, recordings were made after administration of the dopamine antagonist haloperidol (HAL) on three consecutive days. Periodic hindlimb movements (PHLM) during nonrapid eye movement sleep (NREM) were identified according to modified human criteria. RESULTS: In the young animals, no PHLM were observed, whereas, 4 out of 10 old rats showed PHLM, two of them have more than 5 PHLM/h. Haloperidol affects neither the sleep pattern nor the number of PHLM. Interestingly, the percentage of old rats spontaneously displaying PHLM resembles the prevalence of PLMS in the elderly. CONCLUSIONS: Our study demonstrates for the first time that periodic hindlimb movements (PHLM) in sleep can occur spontaneously in rats. A clear effect of age on this phenomenon was seen, with only old animals displaying PHLM. To validate whether the observed PHLM constitute a good model for human PLMS or even RLS, their pharmacological properties need to be characterized in a large number of PHLM positive animals.