Factors predicting the capacity of Los Angeles city-region recreation programs to promote energy expenditure.

An audit of recreation programs with moderate or higher levels of physical activity (PA) in Los Angeles area cities (N=82) was conducted using internet, telephone, and survey methods. Metabolic Equivalents (METs) were used to code programs׳ physical activity intensity. MET-hours per recreation program was associated with required age for enrollment, percent of residents >64 years of age, and fiscal capacity of cities. Capacity to promote energy expenditure may depend on targeted age groups, age of population, and municipal fiscal capacity. Cities with lower fiscal capacity might offer those higher MET-hour activities which require less specialized equipment and seek outside funding to offer higher MET programs.

Understanding the physical and social contexts of children's nonschool sedentary behavior: an ecological momentary assessment study.

BACKGROUND: Research on children's sedentary behavior has relied on recall-based self-report or accelerometer methods, which do not assess the context of such behavior. PURPOSE: This study used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to determine where and with whom children's sedentary behavior occurs during their nonschool time. METHODS: Children (N = 120) ages 9-13 years (51% male, 33% Hispanic) wore mobile phones that prompted surveys (20 total) for 4 days. Surveys measured current activity (eg, exercise, watching TV), physical location (eg, home, outdoors), and social company (eg, family, friends). RESULTS: Children engaged in a greater percentage of leisure-oriented (eg, watching TV) than productive (eg, reading, doing homework) sedentary behavior (70% vs 30%, respectively). Most of children's sedentary activity occurred at home (85%). Children's sedentary activity took place most often with family members (58%). Differences in physical context of sedentary behavior were found for older vs. younger children (P < .05). Type of sedentary behavior differed by gender, racial/ethnic group, and social context (P < .05). CONCLUSION: Children may prefer or have greater opportunities to be sedentary in some contexts than others. Research demonstrates the potential for using EMA to capture real-time information about children's sedentary behavior during their nonschool time.

Smart growth community design and physical activity in children.

BACKGROUND: Physical inactivity is a leading cause of death and disease globally. Research suggests physical inactivity might be linked to community designs that discourage active living. A "smart growth" community contains features likely to promote active living (walkability, green space, mixed land use), but objective evidence on the potential benefits of smart growth communities is limited. PURPOSE: To assess whether living in a smart growth community was associated with increased neighborhood-centered leisure-time physical activity in children aged 8-14 years, compared to residing in a conventional community (i.e., one not designed according to smart growth principles). METHODS: Participants were recruited from a smart growth community, "The Preserve," located in Chino, California, and eight conventional communities within a 30-minute drive of The Preserve. The analytic sample included 147 children. During 2009-2010, each child carried an accelerometer and a GPS for 7 days to ascertain physical activity and location information. Negative binomial models were used to assess the association between residence in the smart growth community and physical activity. Analyses were conducted in 2012. RESULTS: Smart growth community residence was associated with a 46% increase in the proportion of neighborhood moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) as compared to conventional community residence. This analysis included neighborhood activity data collected during the school season and outside of school hours and home. Counterfactual simulations with model parameters suggested that smart growth community residence could add 10 minutes per day of neighborhood MVPA. CONCLUSIONS: Living in a smart growth community may increase local physical activity in children as compared to residence in conventionally designed communities.

Children's perceptions of physical activity environments captured through ecological momentary assessment: a validation study.

OBJECTIVE: This study used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to investigate whether children's perceptions of physical activity (PA) settings correspond with (1) parents' perceptions of neighborhood characteristics (convergent construct validity) and (2) children's level of PA in those settings (concurrent criterion validity). METHODS: Low-to-middle income, ethnically-diverse children (N=108) (ages 9-13) living in Southern California participated in 8 days of EMA during non-school time. EMA measured current activity type (e.g., sports/exercise, TV watching) and perceptions of the current setting (i.e., vegetation, traffic, safety). The Neighborhood Environment Walkability Survey (NEWS) assessed parents' perceptions of neighborhood characteristics. EMA responses were time-matched to moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) (measured by accelerometer) in the 30 min before and after each EMA survey. Data were collected in 2009-2010. RESULTS: Children's perceptions of vegetation and traffic in PA settings corresponded with parents' perceptions of the aesthetics (OR=2.21, 95% CI=1.04-4.73) and traffic (OR=2.64, 95% CI=1.31-5.30) in neighborhood environment, respectively. MVPA minutes were higher in settings perceived by children to have less traffic (ß=3.47, p<.05). CONCLUSIONS: This work provides initial support for the construct and criterion validity of EMA-based measures of children's perceptions of their PA environments.

Assessing the social and physical contexts of children's leisure-time physical activity: an ecological momentary assessment study.

PURPOSE: To use Ecological Momentary Assessment with mobile phones to describe where and with whom children's leisure-time physical activity occurs. DESIGN: Repeated assessments across 4 days (Friday-Monday) during nonschool time (20 total). SETTING: Chino, California, and surrounding communities. SUBJECTS: Primarily low to middle income children (N =121; aged 9-13 years; x¯=11.0 years, SD =1.2 years; 52% male, 38% Hispanic/Latino). MEASURES: Electronic surveys measured current activity (e.g., active play/sports/exercise, watching TV/movies), social company (e.g., family, friends, alone), physical location (e.g., home, outdoors, school), and other perceived contextual features (e.g., safety, traffic, vegetation, distance from home). Analysis . Multilevel linear and multinomial logistic regression. RESULTS: Most of children's physical activity occurred outdoors (away from home) (42%), followed by at home (indoors) (30%), front/backyard (at home) (8%), someone else's house (8%), at a gym/recreation center (3%), and other locations (9%). Children's physical activity took place most often with multiple categories of people together (e.g., friends and family) (39%), followed by family members only (32%), alone (15%), and with friends only (13%). Age, weight status, income, and racial/ethnic differences in physical activity contexts were observed. CONCLUSIONS: The most frequently reported contexts for children's leisure time physical activity were outdoors and with family members and friends together.

Investigating the impact of a smart growth community on the contexts of children's physical activity using Ecological Momentary Assessment.

This quasi-experimental research used Ecological Momentary Assessment with electronic surveys delivered through mobile phones to determine whether children change the type of contexts (i.e., settings) where they engage in physical activity after a recent move to a smart growth (SG) community in the U.S. as compared to children living in conventional low-to-medium density U.S. suburban communities (controls). SG vs. control children engaged in a greater proportion of physical activity bouts with friends, a few blocks from home, and at locations to which they walked. Over six months, the proportion of physical activity bouts reported at home (indoors) and in high traffic locations decreased among SG but not control children. Six-month increases in daily moderate-to-vigorous physical activity did not significantly differ by group. Children might have altered the type of contexts where they engage in physical activity after moving to SG communities, yet more time may be necessary for these changes to impact overall physical activity.

Does exposure to air pollution in urban parks have socioeconomic, racial or ethnic gradients?

Little is known about the levels of air pollution at public parks where regular exercise takes place or in park-adjacent neighborhoods where people have easy access to parks. In this study we investigated the ambient concentrations of criteria pollutants nitrogen dioxide (NO(2)), fine particulate (PM(2.5)) and ozone (O(3)) at public parks and in park-adjacent neighborhoods for metropolitan Los Angeles. Socioeconomic and racial-ethnic inequalities in exposure to the three criteria pollutants were also investigated using multiple linear regression models. In addition, differences in inhalation doses from breathing the three +criteria pollutants were investigated for the top and bottom quartile racial composition in the parks and neighborhoods. Our research showed that although public parks had on average the lowest pollutant concentrations of NO(2) and PM(2.5), they had relatively high O(3) concentrations. Park-adjacent neighborhoods, by contrast, had the highest NO(2) and PM(2.5) concentrations, but the lowest O(3) concentrations. Higher exposures to NO(2) and PM(2.5) were systematically identified for the lower socioeconomic position or higher minority population neighborhoods. For children and adolescents aged 6-15 engaging in high and moderate intensity activities in and around public parks, those from the top quartile of primarily Hispanic neighborhoods had much higher (63%) inhaled doses of NO(2) compared to the bottom quartile counterpart. PM(2.5) showed a similar but less pronounced pattern of inhalation doses. Evidence of socioeconomic and racial-ethnic gradients was found in air pollution exposure and inhalation doses in and around the urban parks in Los Angeles. This suggests that patterns of exposure inequality found in other environmental justice research are present in exposures in and around urban parks.

Physical and social contextual influences on children's leisure-time physical activity: an ecological momentary assessment study.

BACKGROUND: This study used real-time electronic surveys delivered through mobile phones, known as Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA), to determine whether level and experience of leisure-time physical activity differ across children's physical and social contexts. METHODS: Children (N = 121; ages 9 to 13 years; 52% male, 32% Hispanic/Latino) participated in 4 days (Fri.-Mon.) of EMA during nonschool time. Electronic surveys (20 total) assessed primary activity (eg, active play/sports/exercise), physical location (eg, home, outdoors), social context (eg, friends, alone), current mood (positive and negative affect), and enjoyment. Responses were time-matched to the number of steps and minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA; measured by accelerometer) in the 30 minutes before each survey. RESULTS: Mean steps and MVPA were greater outdoors than at home or at someone else's house (all P < .05). Steps were greater with multiple categories of company (eg, friends and family together) than with family members only or alone (all P < .05). Enjoyment was greater outdoors than at home or someone else's house (all P < .05). Negative affect was greater when alone and with family only than friends only (all P < .05). CONCLUSION: Results describing the value of outdoor and social settings could inform context-specific interventions in this age group.

Reliability of an audit tool for systematic assessment of urban alleyways.

BACKGROUND: Reliable audit tools are needed to examine the potential of built environment features for physical activity. METHODS: An audit tool for alley environments was developed with land use, substrate, and use, condition, and safety items. Two audit teams independently audited 29 Los Angeles alleys, and interteam reliability was calculated with Cohen's and prevalence-adjusted, bias-adjusted kappa (PABAK) statistics; intraclass correlation coefficients; and percent observed agreement. RESULTS: Forty-two of 47 dichotomous items analyzed for reliability had PABAK values > or = 0.61 ("substantial agreement"). Sixteen of 23 ordinal and continuous response items analyzed had ICCs > or = 0.61, and an additional 6 with lower ICC values had observed agreement > or = 79%. Items concerning the presence or absence of use-related alley features demonstrated the lowest reliability. CONCLUSIONS: The instrument has acceptable reliability for most of its items and appears to be a promising tool for use by other researchers and professionals in the measurement of alley environments.

The active city? Disparities in provision of urban public recreation resources.

Recreation is critical to active living yet few studies have focused on disparities in the provision of recreational programs. We investigate the spatial distribution of public recreational programs in southern California. Findings indicate that more than half of all recreation programs take place away from a formal park site. Multivariate modeling results suggest that cities characterized by low household incomes, low fiscal capacity, minority populations, and multi-family housing are disadvantaged with respect to recreation provisions. Such disparities may increase health risks among populations in such communities. Urban planners and public health advocates should enhance recreation programs in lower-income non-white communities.

Automobile traffic around the home and attained body mass index: a longitudinal cohort study of children aged 10-18 years.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study is to examine the relationship between measured traffic density near the homes of children and attained body mass index (BMI) over an eight-year follow up. METHODS: Children aged 9-10 years were enrolled across multiple communities in Southern California in 1993 and 1996 (n=3318). Children were followed until age 18 or high school graduation to collect longitudinal information, including annual height and weight measurements. Multilevel growth curve models were used to assess the association between BMI levels at age 18 and traffic around the home. RESULTS: For traffic within 150 m around the child's home, there were significant positive associations with attained BMI for both sexes at age 18. With the 300 m traffic buffer, associations for both male and female growth in BMI were positive, but significantly elevated only in females. These associations persisted even after controlling for numerous potential confounding variables. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis yields the first evidence of significant effects from traffic density on BMI levels at age 18 in a large cohort of children. Traffic is a pervasive exposure in most cities, and our results identify traffic as a major risk factor for the development of obesity in children.

Reasons for urban trail use predict levels of trail-related physical activity.

BACKGROUND: Efforts to increase community levels of physical activity through the development of multiuse urban trails could be strengthened by information about factors predicting trail use. This study examined whether reasons for trail use predict levels of physical activity on urban trails. METHODS: Adults (N = 335) living within a 1-mile buffer zone of urban trails in Chicago, Dallas, and Los Angeles completed a self-report measure assessing demographics, reason for trail use, and physical activity on the trail. Accelerometers measured total daily moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Environmental features of the urban trail were assessed with the Systematic Pedestrian and Cyclist Environmental Scan for trails measure. Multivariate regression analyses were conducted that accounted for clustering of individuals within trail segments. RESULTS: After controlling for demographic and environmental factors and total daily MVPA, reasons for trail use significantly predicted recreational but not transportation activity. Recreational trail activity was greater for participants who reported exercise and health reasons for trail use as compared with other reasons (ie, social interaction, enjoying nature, walking pets) for recreational trail use. CONCLUSIONS: To increase the use of urban trails, it may be useful to promote the health and exercise benefits of recreational trail use.