Perception of Animal Abuse among Adolescents: Influence of Social and Demographic Factors.

Animal welfare is inherited in each society, shaped by the surrounding environment and upbringing of each individual. This influence becomes particularly significant during adolescence. Due to its cultural context, Spain is among the European Union nations with the highest number of cases of animal abuse. The Canary Islands, the scenario of this study, show the highest rates of intentional poisoning of wildlife and pets' abandonment. The aim of the present study was to explore the perception of animal welfare among adolescents, studying the influence of the main socio-demographic factors that may condition it. A validated questionnaire on animal abuse was used and distributed to adolescents aged 14-18 years in two public study centers. Animal abuse rates were correlated with socio-demographic variables. In total, 302 subjects answered the questionnaire. The perception of animal welfare was influenced by socio-demographic variables, gender being the most important. The demographic profile of the least responsive adolescent to animal abuse was a male engaged in sports, not owning a dog, and hailing from a family involved in hunting. Awareness should be raised at an early age, promoting artistic activities, encouraging contact with animals and sporting practices that do not generate a lack of empathy for animals.

Determination of heavy metals from Aloe vera by- product in golden mullet (Liza aurata); A consumer health risk assessment.

Heavy metals have become subject of concern in the recent years because of its potency to cause cardiovascular diseases and other toxic health effects. Therefore, this research was assumed to investigate the level of toxicity in terms of heavy metals accumulation in the fish samples and its benefits and risk for human consumers health and also evaluate the partial replacement of plant sources by canarian Aloe vera diets as a pure product or like a by-product on toxicological effects on the golden mullet (Liza aurata) fillet and whole body. In this study risks arising from fish metal content has been measured using various parameters as Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), Maximum Safe Consumption (MSCA), Target Hazard quotient (THQ), Hazard Index (HI) Carcinogenic risk of As (As- CR), the Value Selenium Health Benefit (Se HBV) and also the Nutritional Values has been evaluated. The results showed that all heavy metal levels in the fish tissue and diets were below the confirmed safe limits for consumption. In case of diets, it is obvious that with the exception of As, Hg, and Se, the presence of heavy or essential metals in both whole fish and raw fillet in golden grey mullet given experimental diets revealed that the whole fish had the highest concentration. Thus, it can be concluded that Aloe vera product and byproduct were in safety limits for fish and also for humans through food chain. Various risk and benefit assessment measures established by national and international authorities concluded that Liza aurata use was mostly safe.

Nutritional Evaluation and Risk Assessment of the Exposure to Essential and Toxic Elements in Dogs and Cats through the Consumption of Pelleted Dry Food: How Important Is the Quality of the Feed?

Dry feed for pets lacks specific legislation regarding maximum residue limits for inorganic elements. The aim of the present study was to determine the content of 43 inorganic elements in dog and cat feed, studying whether there were differences according to the supposed quality of the food and performing the risk assessment for health. Thirty-one and thirty packages of pelleted dry food for cats and dogs, respectively, were analyzed. After acidic microwave-assisted digestion, elements were detected and quantified by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). In general, we did not observe important differences in the content of elements according to the supposed quality of the brand. Among trace elements, selenium and manganese are above the dietary reference value. Arsenic and mercury showed the highest acute hazard indexes, which make them risk factors for the health of dogs and cats. Aluminum, uranium, antimony and vanadium contents were above the toxic reference value and showed the highest acute hazard indexes. It is necessary to improve the legislation regarding the food safety of pets, for their health and to protect the rights of consumers.

Risk assessment of the exposure to mycotoxins in dogs and cats through the consumption of commercial dry food.

Dry feed for dogs and cats sold in Europe are mostly formulated with cereals and cereal by-products, so the contamination of this food with mycotoxins represents a potential risk for these pets. We analyzed a representation of the best-selling feed brands in Spain. The presence of Aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, and G2), Ochratoxin A, T-2 and HT-2 toxins, Deoxynivalenol, Zearalenone, and Fumonisins (B1 and B2) was quantified, using immunoaffinity columns and LC-MS/MS. In general, mycotoxins were frequently and simultaneously (6-11) detected, with AFB1, FB1, FB2, Deoxynivalenol, and HT-2 detected in 100% of the samples. However, the concentrations of most of them are among the lowest reported so far. Fumonisins were the exception since we report the highest concentrations to date, particularly in cat feed. We practically found no significant differences in the level of mycotoxin contamination in relation to the presumed quality of the feed. We also calculated the daily exposure, and evaluated the acute and chronic health risk posed by these feeds. None of the brands analyzed presented acute risk for any of the mycotoxins. However, the high levels of fumonisins found in some samples could become problematic, if there are hidden forms of them. This is also evident in relation to long-term risk, since in the case of fumonisins the level of exposure exceeds the tolerable daily intake level in 3.5 and 12 times, for dogs and cats respectively. The exposure levels to zearalenone and deoxynivalenol could also be of long-term concern, especially considering the possibility that the continuous exposure to several mycotoxins simultaneously might produce potentiated toxic effects as a result of their synergistic action. Further research on the potential adverse health effects deriving from chronic exposure to low doses of multi-mycotoxin mixtures in pets is needed.

Dietary Intake of Essential, Toxic, and Potentially Toxic Elements from Mussels (Mytilus spp.) in the Spanish Population: A Nutritional Assessment.

The levels of forty-three elements were determined in fresh, preserved, and frozen mussels (n = 208) with the purpose of evaluating their contribution to the recommended dietary intake of essential elements and their potential risk to Spanish consumers' health. We found relevant differences in the element content in relation to the mode of conservation of mussels as well as in relation to their geographical origin, brand, or mode of production. According to our estimates, mussels are important contributors to the intake of most essential elements, contributing almost 70% of daily requirements of Se, 30-35% of Mo, Zn, and Co, and around 15% of Fe. At the same time, the pattern of average consumption of mussels in Spain does not seem to imply an excessive risk associated with any of the 36 toxic elements studied. However, it should be noted that, in the high percentile of consumption the exposure to Cd and As may be high, in particular that associated with the consumption of fresh and/or frozen mussels. According to the results of this study, a moderate consumption of mussels can be recommended as a valuable and safe source of trace elements.

Assessment of 22 inorganic elements in human amniotic fluid: a cross-sectional study conducted in Canary Islands (Spain).

We conducted a cross-sectional study in the Hospital Universitario de Canarias (Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain) measuring 22 inorganic elements in amniotic fluid (AF) samples obtained from 65 pregnant women. ICP-MS was used for quantification of inorganic elements. Newborn parameters at delivery were all within the normal range. Concentrations of all elements were detected in measurable amounts in AF. The concentration of elements was similar to those reported in the literature. The concentrations of the most dangerous heavy metals - Cd, Cr, Ni, Hg and Pb - were lower than those reported by other authors. This study demonstrates that toxic inorganic elements pass into and accumulate in AF. The presence of such pollutants in contact with developing embryos from the intrauterine period could exert adverse health effects that deserve future investigations.

Pattern of blood concentrations of 47 elements in two populations from the same geographical area but with different geological origin and lifestyles: Canary Islands (Spain) vs. Morocco.

The Canary Islands are one of the outermost regions of the European Union (EU), which are located barely 100 km from the coasts of Morocco. Although these islands are located in Africa, the degree of socioeconomic development and lifestyle in this archipelago is comparable to that of any other region of Europe. It is well established that the main determinants of human exposure to elements have to do both, with their place of residence and with habits related to their lifestyle. For this reason, we wanted to study the pattern of contamination by elements of these two populations so geographically close, but so different both in their lifestyle, and the geological origin of the territory where they live. Thus, we have determined the blood concentrations of 47 elements (including 25 rare earth elements (REE) and other minority elements (ME) widely employed in the hi-tech industry) in a paired sample of Moroccans (n = 124) and Canary Islands inhabitants (n = 120). We found that the levels of iron, selenium, zinc, arsenic, cadmium, strontium, and specially lead, were significantly higher in Moroccans than in Canarians, probably due to the intensive mining activity in this country. We also found significantly higher levels of the sum of REE and ME in Moroccans than in Canarians, possibly related to the inappropriate management of e-waste in this country. On the other hand, in the inhabitants of the Canary Islands we found higher levels of manganese, probably related to a higher degree of exposure to heavy traffic and exposure to Saharan dust of the people living in this region, and niobium and bismuth, probably related to the higher economic development in these islands. Our results indicate that the vicinity of both territories is not a major determinant of each other's contamination.

Study of the influencing factors of the blood levels of toxic elements in Africans from 16 countries.

Africa's economy is growing faster than any other continent and it has been estimated that the middle class in Africa now exceeds 350 million people. This has meant a parallel increase in the importation of consumer goods and in the implementation of communication and information technologies (ICT), but also in the generation of large quantities of e-waste. However, inadequate infrastructure development remains a major constraint to the continent's economic growth and these highly toxic residues are not always adequately managed. Few studies have been conducted to date assessing the possible association between socioeconomic development factors, including e-waste generation, and blood levels of inorganic elements in African population. To disclose the role of geographical, anthropogenic, and socioeconomic development determinants on the blood levels of Ag, Al, As, Be, Cd, Co, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb, Sb, and V -all of them frequently found in e-waste-, an immigrant population-based study was made including a total of 245 subjects from 16 countries recently arrived to the Canary Islands (Spain). Women presented higher levels of blood elements than men, and Northern Africans (Moroccans) were the most contaminated. People from low-income countries exhibited significantly lower blood levels of inorganic elements than those from middle-income countries. We found a significant association between the use of motor vehicles and the implementation of information and communication technologies (ICT) and the level of contamination. Immigrants from the countries with a high volume of imports of second-hand electronic equipment, telephone and internet use had higher levels of inorganic elements. In general terms, the higher level of economic development the higher the blood levels of inorganic pollutants, suggesting that the economic development of Africa, in parallel to e-waste generation and the existence of informal recycling sites, have directly affected the level of contamination of the population of the continent.

Assessment of human health hazards associated with the dietary exposure to organic and inorganic contaminants through the consumption of fishery products in Spain.

In this work we have evaluated the potential carcinogenic and acutely toxic risks associated to the exposure to highly prevalent organic and inorganic contaminants through the consumption of fishery products by the Spanish population. The concentrations of 8 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), 18 polychlorinated biphenils (PCBs), 7 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (expressed as benzo[a]pyrene toxic equivalents (B[a]Peq)), and three inorganic toxic elements [arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg)] were determined in 93 samples of the most consumed species of white fish, blue fish, cephalopods and seafood species, which were acquired directly in markets and supermarkets in the Canary Islands, Spain. The chemical concentration data were combined with the pattern of consumption of these foodstuffs in order to calculate the daily intake of these contaminants, and on this basis the risk quotients for carcinogenicity and acute toxicity were determined for Spanish adults and children. Our results showed that the daily intake of OCPs, PCBs and B[a]Peq, which is associated to blue fish consumption was the highest within the fish group. The estimated intake of pollutants can be considered low or very low for the individual contaminants, when compared to reference values, except in the case of HCB and As. All the estimated intakes were below the reported Tolerable Daily Intakes. Considering the additive effects of multiple contaminants, the risk of acute toxic effects can also be considered as low or very low. However, our results reflect that the current consumption of white fish in adults and children, and also the blue fish in the case of adults, poses a moderate carcinogenic risk to Spanish consumers, mainly related to their concentrations of As. The conclusions of this research may be useful for the design of appropriate risk communication campaigns.

The assessment of daily dietary intake reveals the existence of a different pattern of bioaccumulation of chlorinated pollutants between domestic dogs and cats.

Pet dogs and cats have been proposed as sentinel species to assess environmental contamination and human exposure to a variety of pollutants, including POPs. However, some authors have reported that dogs but not cats exhibit intriguingly low levels of some of the most commonly detected POPs, such as DDT and its metabolites. This research was designed to explore these differences between dogs and cats. Thus, we first determined the concentrations of 53 persistent and semi-persistent pollutants (16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 18 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and 19 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs)) in samples of the most consumed brands of commercial feed for dogs and cats, and we calculated the daily dietary intake of these pollutants in both species. Higher levels of pollutants were found in dog food and our results showed that the median values of intake were about twice higher in dogs than in cats for all the three groups of pollutants (ΣPAHs: 274.8 vs. 141.8; ΣOCPs: 233.1 vs. 83; ΣPCBs: 101.8 vs. 43.8 (ng/kg bw/day); respectively). Additionally, we determined the plasma levels of the same pollutants in 42 and 35 pet dogs and cats, respectively. All these animals lived indoors and were fed on the commercial brands of feed analyzed. As expected (considering the intake), the plasma levels of PAHs were higher in dogs than in cats. However, for organochlorines (OCPs and PCBs) the plasma levels were much higher in cats than in dogs (as much as 23 times higher for DDTs), in spite of the higher intake in dogs. This reveals a lower capacity of bioaccumulation of some pollutants in dogs, which is probably related with higher metabolizing capabilities in this species.

Socioeconomic development as a determinant of the levels of organochlorine pesticides and PCBs in the inhabitants of Western and Central African countries.

Several studies of environmental samples indicate that the levels of many persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are increasing in Africa, but few studies have been conducted in humans. Simultaneously, many African countries are experiencing a rapid economic growth and implementing information and communication technologies (ICT). These changes have generated high amounts of electronic waste (e-waste) that have not been adequately managed. We tested the hypothesis that the current levels of two main classes of POPs in Western and Central African countries are affected by the degree of socioeconomic development. We measured the levels of 36 POPs in the serum of recent immigrants (N=575) who came from 19 Sub-Saharan countries to the Canary Islands (Spain). We performed statistical analyses on their anthropometric and socioeconomic data. High median levels of POPs were found in the overall sample, with differences among the countries. Organochlorine pesticide (OCP) and polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) levels increased with age. People from low-income countries had significantly higher OCP levels and much lower PCB levels than those from high-income countries. We found a significant association between the implementation of ICT and PCB contamination. Immigrants from the countries with a high volume of imports of second-hand electronic equipment had higher PCB levels. The economic development of Africa and the e-waste generation have directly affected the levels of POPs. The POP legacies of these African populations most likely are due to the inappropriate management of the POPs' residues.

Assessment of anticoagulant rodenticide exposure in six raptor species from the Canary Islands (Spain).

Anticoagulant rodenticides are highly toxic compounds that are widely used for pest control of rodents, but that also may threaten the wildlife's health. This work aimed to assess the exposure to first- and second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) in six birds of prey species from the Canary Islands (Spain). The concentrations of seven widely used ARs were determined by LC-MS/MS in 104 liver samples of six species of birds of prey (Buteo buteo, Accipiter nisus, Falco pelegrinoides, Falco tinnunculus, Asio otus, and Tyto alba). We determined that 61% of the livers had detectable residues of at least one AR. The most frequently detected AR was bromadiolone, which was detected in 60.3% of the positive cases. The detection frequencies of these compounds varied widely, depending on the species. More than 75% of the A. nisus, T. alba, and A. otus individuals had detectable rodenticide residues in the liver. However, F. tinnunculus exhibited the highest concentrations of AR, with median values above 100 ng/g w.w. We did not detect first-generation ARs in any of the samples. When grouped, nocturnal species exhibited higher AR concentrations than diurnal species (P<0.001). The residue levels were higher among small mammal-eaters than bird-eaters (P<0.01). While most animals exhibited no macroscopic signs of coagulation disorders, approximately 35% exceeded the threshold levels of toxicity, which suggests that these compounds could weaken these animals in their natural environment. In conclusion, the control of rodent populations by ARs suggests that these compounds will enter the food chain and thus threaten the vulnerable populations of raptors on the Canary Islands. Our findings require authorities to ban or strictly control the use of these rodenticides in the natural environment for the conservation of raptors and other predatory species.

Assessment of the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and organochlorine contaminants in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) from the Eastern Atlantic Ocean.

The concentrations of 18 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 23 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), and 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined in the blubber and liver of 27 bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) stranded along the Canary Islands coasts from 1997 to 2011. DDTs (mean of 60,960 and 445 ng/g lw., respectively) and PCBs (mean of 47,168 and 628 ng/g lw., respectively) were the predominant compounds in both tissues. Among PCBs the highly chlorinated PCB 180, 153 and 138 were the predominant congeners. We found a p,p'-DDE/∑DDTs ratio of 0.87 in blubber and 0.88 in liver, which is indicative of DDT ageing. All the samples showed detectable values of any of the 16 PAH studied. Phenanthrene was the most frequently detected and at the highest concentration. According to our results, concentrations of OCPs, and especially PCBs, are still at toxicologically relevant levels in blubber of bottlenose dolphins of this geographical area.

Assessment of the exposure to organochlorine pesticides, PCBs and PAHs in six species of predatory birds of the Canary Islands, Spain.

In the present study, we investigated the concentrations and distributions of 57 anthropogenic pollutants, including 23 organochlorine pesticides (OCs), 18 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in liver samples from 102 birds of prey of six species that were found dead or that had died during their stay in the Wildlife Recovery Centers of the Canary Islands (Spain) between 2009 and 2012. The dual goal of this work was to determine the occurrence of these contaminants in these six species of birds of prey, and also whether they can be used as bioindicators for monitoring environmental pollution in the region. We found that Accipiter nisus, Falco pelegrinoides and Falco tinnunculus were the most contaminated species. The profiles of contamination among the species were extremely similar in the case of organochlorine contaminants, with DDT and its metabolites as the most abundant compounds. The contamination by DDT and its metabolites, as well as contamination by dieldrin, could be considered high in these animals, much higher than reports from other regions of the planet, which is in agreement with previous reports from our group regarding humans, food and other animals from this area. In contrast, the contamination by PCBs could be considered extremely low and was probably below the threshold of toxicity for these contaminants. The content of carcinogenic/mutagenic PAHs in these animals was clearly dependent on the feeding pattern of the species; however, the levels were also well below the values that were considered toxic in predictive models. This study represents the first report of contamination by PAHs in all these species and is also the first report of PCB levels in Barbary Falcons.

Assessment of current dietary intake of organochlorine contaminants and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in killer whales (Orcinus orca) through direct determination in a group of whales in captivity.

We determined the levels of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 19 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and 18 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the plasma of captive adult killer whales and in their food. The goal of this research was the assessment of the dietary exposure of killer whales to these pollutants to gain insight on what is the actual magnitude of the exposure in this species, which is considered among the most contaminated in the planet. Plasma median ∑OCP and ∑PCB contents were 3150.3 and 7985.9 ng g(-1)l.w., respectively. A total of 78.9% of the PCBs were marker-PCBs, and 21.1% were dioxin-like PCBs (6688.7 pg g(-1)l.w. dioxin toxic equivalents). This is the first report of the blood levels of PAHs in killer whales, and their median value was 1023.1 ng g(-1)l.w. In parallel, we also determined the levels of these contaminants in the fish species that are used to feed these animals to estimate the orcas' average daily dietary intake of pollutants. All the contaminants in the fish were detected in the plasma of the killer whales, and proportionality between the intake and the blood levels was observed in all the animals. The calculated intake was extremely high for certain contaminants, which is a concern, giving a glimpse of what possibly occurs in the wild, where exposure to these contaminants can be even higher. Therefore, although many of these chemicals have been banned for decades, even today, the levels of these chemicals could reach very toxic concentrations in the tissues of these endangered animals because of their diet.

Determinants of blood lead levels in children: a cross-sectional study in the Canary Islands (Spain).

The adverse effects of lead exposure on children are well known. Low blood lead levels (BLL) produce neurodevelopmental delay and cognitive disorders. However, since BLL thresholds for adverse effects on children's health are not known, the children population at risk of excessive lead exposure still has to be identified. This study was aimed at evaluating BLL in a children population of Gran Canaria (Canary Islands, Spain). Up to our knowledge, this is the first study to report on BLL in this population. Lead was identified and quantified in blood samples of 120 children, by means of Graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS). Lead was undetected in 80% of samples; BLL was 1 to 5 µg/dl in 15% of samples, and higher than 5 µg/dl in more than 4% of samples. BLL values in the evaluated children were low and similar to those described for other populations in Western countries. However, samples with the highest contamination (those in percentile 95) reached BLLs as high as 5.2 µg/dl. Positive associations were found between BLL and recent immigration (children adopted from non-western countries), and between BLL and parental smoking in children with low weight at birth. Since lead exposure in childhood may be a causative factor in adverse health trends - especially those involving the neurological system - and since threshold values for adverse lead effects are unknown, our finding that around 20% of the studied children had BLL higher than 1 µg/dl are of concern. Enhancing preventive measures for reducing lead exposure in children from the Canary Islands deserves further study.