Applicability of wheat brewer's spent grain in steamed bread-making based on physicochemical and visual profiles assessment of doughs and breads.

Brewer's spent grain (BSG), one of the main byproducts of brewing, has been widely used in the food industry due to its high nutritional components of dietary fiber, proteins, polysaccharides, and polyphenols. This study investigated the influence of wheat brewer's spent grain (WBSG) on the physicochemical properties of dough and steamed bread-making performance. The incorporation of WBSG in wheat flour significantly increased water absorption, development time, and degree of softening while decreasing the stability time of blending dough. Excessive WBSG up to 20% restricted the dough formation. WBSG contributed to the remarkable increase of pasting viscosities, pasting temperature, and immobilized water proportion in doughs. For all doughs, storage moduli (G') were higher than viscous moduli (G″). WBSG addition resulted in higher moduli values and the formation of highly networked gluten structure, finally leading to the lower specific volume, spread ratio, and elasticity of bread. Lightness (L*) of bread decreased with increasing WBSG while redness (a*) and total color difference (ΔE) augmented. Low WBSG addition (≤5%) could endow steamed bread with the appearance of a chocolate-like color and pleasant malt flavor, which is acceptable for most consumers. Nevertheless, the improvement of nutritional and functional characteristics of steamed bread incorporated with WBSG should be more focused in the future.

Aerobic spore-forming bacteria associated with ropy bread: Identification, characterization and spoilage potential assessment.

Aerobic spore-forming (ASF) bacteria have been reported to cause ropiness in bread. Sticky and stringy degradation, discoloration, and an odor reminiscent of rotting fruit are typical characteristics of ropy bread spoilage. In addition to economic losses, ropy bread spoilage may lead to health risks, as virulent strains of ASF bacteria are not uncommon. However, the lack of systematic approaches to quantify physicochemical spoilage characteristics makes it extremely difficult to assess rope formation in bread. To address this problem, the aim of this study was to identify, characterize and objectively assess the spoilage potential of ASF bacteria associated with ropy bread. Hence, a set of 82 ASF bacteria, including isolates from raw materials and bakery environments as well as strains from international culture collections, were identified by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) and their species identity confirmed by 16S rRNA and gyrA or panC gene sequencing. A standardized approach supported by objective colorimetric measurements was developed to assess the rope-inducing potential (RIP) of a strain by inoculating autoclaved bread slices with bacterial spores. In addition, the presence of potential virulence factors such as swarming motility or hemolysis was investigated. This study adds B. velezensis, B. inaquosorum and B. spizizenii to the species potentially implicated of causing ropy bread spoilage. Most importantly, this study introduces a standardized classification protocol for assessing the RIP of a bacterial strain. Colorimetric measurements are used to objectively quantify the degree of breadcrumb discoloration. Furthermore, our results indicate that strains capable of inducing rope spoilage in bread often exhibit swarming motility and virulence factors such as hemolysis, raising important food quality considerations.

Assessment of the salt tolerance of diverse bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) genotypes during the early growth stage under hydroponic culture conditions.

Objectives: Soil salinity affects the growth of crop plants, leading to reduced productivity, and is a major challenge for wheat production worldwide. Various adaptations and mitigation approaches in combination with tolerant wheat genotypes can be useful for the sustainability of crop production in saline environments. However, the development of salt-tolerant wheat genotypes is one of the best and most efficient solutions for obtaining desirable yields. Considering these issues, an investigation was carried out under hydroponic nutrient culture conditions to assess the genetic variability and selection of salt-tolerant wheat genotypes by categorizing inequitable morphophysiological and genetic variability as well as multivariate analysis. Methods: To meet the objectives of this study, 100 wheat genotypes were tested hydroponically in 0 (control) and 15 dS m-1 salt solutions. Conclusion: For all the wheat genotypes grown under saline conditions, the shoot length (SL), root length (RL), shoot fresh weight (SFW), root fresh weight (RFW), total fresh weight (TFW), shoot dry weight (SDW), root dry weight (RDW), and total dry weight (TDW) decreased significantly. Furthermore, significant variation was observed among the genotypes in terms of their characteristics only under saline conditions. In the case of genetic diversity analysis, a high genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV), phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV), genetic advance in the percentage of the mean (GAM) and high heritability (h2b) were recorded for all tested wheat genotypes based on the SDW, RDW and TDW. Correlation analysis for both genotypic and phenotypic relationships revealed strong positive correlations for TDW, SDW, TFW and SFW. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that TDW, TFW, SDW, and SFW were the most discriminative variables for the wheat genotypes, which was confirmed by discriminant function analysis (DFA). PCA-biplot analysis also revealed significant positive correlations between SDW and SFW and between TDW and TFW. Hierarchical cluster analysis was performed for ten clusters based on the relative performance of the genotypes, where the genotypes were characterized into salt-tolerant, medium-salt-tolerant, medium-salt-susceptible and salt-susceptible groups. Among the genotypes, G11, G25 and G29 under cluster VII were categorized as salt tolerant based on their outstanding performance in terms of characteristics only under saline conditions. D2 analysis proved that the wheat genotypes of this cluster were highly divergent from the other cluster genotypes; as a result, these genotypes might be utilized as parents in the development of salt-tolerant wheat genotypes. The current study concluded that SDW and TDW could be employed as criteria for selecting and defining salt-tolerant genotypes during the early growth stage of wheat.

Dietary acrylamide exposure and health risk assessment of pregnant women: A case study from Türkiye.

This study aimed to determine the acrylamide exposure of pregnant women resulting from the consumption of bread, coffee, and French fries and to evaluate it in terms of carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risks. Retrospective 24-h food consumption data of pregnant women (n = 487) was obtained using the Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ). Dietary acrylamide exposure was calculated according to a deterministic model, and the data were assessed by hazard index (HI) and carcinogenic risk (CR). The mean daily acrylamide exposure of pregnant women aged 18-30 and ≥31 years and in the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd trimesters was 31.4, 35.4, 38.7, 31.3, and 32.4 µg/day, respectively. The acrylamide exposure data were not significantly different among different age groups and pregnancy periods (p > .05). Dietary acrylamide exposure in pregnant women of different age groups and trimesters may cause significant and serious health problems in terms of carcinogenic risk. According to their level of contribution to average acrylamide exposure, the foods were ranked as follows: French fries> bread> coffee. There is a significant risk of cancer due to exposure to acrylamide from French fries and bread other than coffee. The findings suggest that pregnant women should avoid consuming French fries, bread, and coffee with high acrylamide levels for both their own health and their newborns' health.

Measurement of Iron in Flour and Commonly-Used Breads Baked in Isfahan, Iran: A Risk Assessment Study with Monte Carlo Simulation.

Fortification of highly-consumed foods such as bread is an easy and cheap strategy to combat the iron deficiency anemia. However, there have sometimes been some side effects such as iron overload and digestive problems. Accordingly, this study aimed to examine the amount of iron as well as its non-carcinogenic risks in commonly-used types of Iranian flour and breads (Barbary, Lavash, and Tafton) in Isfahan, Iran. Iron concentration of 100 samples of flour and breads were measured by Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometer. Moreover, the non-carcinogenic health risk of iron in fortified breads was estimated by Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) in Monte Carlo Simulation technique. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ), with a recovery level of 95%, were 1.8 × 10-5 and 5.9 × 10-5 mg/kg, respectively. The total mean concentration of iron in flour (53.48 ± 22.49 mg/kg) and bread (39.02 ± 22.63 mg/kg) samples was within the standard recommended range (40-85 mg/kg) in Iran. THQ for adults and children was equal to 0.53 and 2.48. respectively. Hence, non-carcinogenic risk of iron through bread consumption was acceptable for adults, while it was not acceptable for children as a sensitive group. Consequently, it is required to rescreen the flour and bread fortification program in Iran according to the comprehensive risk assessment studies.

In Silico Safety Assessment of Bacillus Isolated from Polish Bee Pollen and Bee Bread as Novel Probiotic Candidates.

Bacillus species isolated from Polish bee pollen (BP) and bee bread (BB) were characterized for in silico probiotic and safety attributes. A probiogenomics approach was used, and in-depth genomic analysis was performed using a wide array of bioinformatics tools to investigate the presence of virulence and antibiotic resistance properties, mobile genetic elements, and secondary metabolites. Functional annotation and Carbohydrate-Active enZYmes (CAZYme) profiling revealed the presence of genes and a repertoire of probiotics properties promoting enzymes. The isolates BB10.1, BP20.15 (isolated from bee bread), and PY2.3 (isolated from bee pollen) genome mining revealed the presence of several genes encoding acid, heat, cold, and other stress tolerance mechanisms, adhesion proteins required to survive and colonize harsh gastrointestinal environments, enzymes involved in the metabolism of dietary molecules, antioxidant activity, and genes associated with the synthesis of vitamins. In addition, genes responsible for the production of biogenic amines (BAs) and D-/L-lactate, hemolytic activity, and other toxic compounds were also analyzed. Pan-genome analyses were performed with 180 Bacillus subtilis and 204 Bacillus velezensis genomes to mine for any novel genes present in the genomes of our isolates. Moreover, all three isolates also consisted of gene clusters encoding secondary metabolites.

An Impact Assessment of Par-Baking and Storage on the Quality of Wheat, Whole Wheat, and Whole Rye Breads.

Par-baking technology increases the production efficiency of bread. However, the degree of par-baking can vary significantly amongst product types and intended sales markets, leading to substantial differences in the quality attributes of the finished product. The objective of this study was to explore the impact of the degree of par-baking on the technological quality of wheat, whole wheat, and whole rye bread (95, 75, and 50% of full baking time). More specifically, this study focused on the starch pasting behavior of different flour formulations, the crumb core temperature during par-baking, and the influence of the degree of par-baking on the bread characteristics of (composite) wheat bread as a function of storage time. The quality attributes of par-baked bread (0 and 4 days after par-baking) and fully baked bread (0 and 2 days after full baking) were assessed. A reduction in the degree of par-baking from 95 to 50% resulted over time in 19.4% less hardening and 8.6% more cohesiveness for the re-baked wheat breads. Nevertheless, it also negatively impacted springiness (-9.1%) and adhesion (+475%). It is concluded that using the core temperature to define the degree of par-baking is not sufficient for bread loaves intended to be consumed over time, but the results indicate that reducing the degree of par-baking can be beneficial for certain quality aspects of the breads.

Bread Consumption-Induced Heavy Metal Exposures and Health Risk Assessment of Pregnant Women: Turkey.

Affordable, nutritious, and easily available bread has a significant place in the nutrition of pregnant women. This study aims to determine bread consumption-induced heavy metal exposure in pregnant women with different sociodemographic characteristics living in Turkey and to evaluate it for non-carcinogenic health risks. Bread consumption data of pregnant women covered a retrospective 24-h period. Heavy metal exposure was calculated according to the deterministic model. Non-carcinogenic health risk assessment was evaluated by target hazard quotient (THQ) and hazard index (HI). Bread consumption-induced Mn, Al, Cu, Ni, Pb, As, Cr, Co, Cd, and Hg exposures of all pregnant women (n = 446) were 44.0, 25.0, 6.62, 0.69, 0.15, 0.06, 0.04, 0.03, 0.03, and < 0.00 µg/kg bw/day, respectively. Bread consumption-induced Mn exposure was higher than the tolerable daily intake level. The HI (1.37 [Formula: see text] 1.71) related to bread consumption is greater than 1 in all pregnant women in different age groups and trimesters and bread consumption may cause some health concerns in terms of non-carcinogenic health risks for pregnant women. The bread consumption can be limited, but bread consumption should not be abandoned.

Assessment of intra- and inter-genetic diversity in tetraploid and hexaploid wheat genotypes based on omega, gamma and alpha-gliadin profiles.

Durum and bread wheat are well adapted to the Mediterranean Basin. Twenty-three genotypes of each species were grown to evaluate the intra- and inter-genetic diversity based on omega (ω), gamma (γ) and alpha (α)-gliadin profiles. To achieve this purpose, the endosperm storage proteins (both gliadins and glutenins) were extracted from wheat grains and electrophoresed on sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-polyacrylamide gels. The results of SDS-Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) revealed nine polymorphic loci out of 16 loci with durum wheat genotypes and nine polymorphic loci out of 18 loci with bead wheat genotypes. The polymorphisms revealed by the SDS-PAGE were 56% and 50% in durum and bread wheat genotypes, respectively. Using the cluster analysis, the durum wheat genotypes were clustered into five groups, while the bread wheat genotypes were grouped into six clusters using un-weighed pair group mean analyses based on ω, γ, and α-gliadins profiles. The 46 durum and bread wheat genotypes were grouped into seven clusters based on the combined ω, γ, and α-gliadins profiles revealed by the SDS-PAGE. The in silico analysis determined the intra-genetic diversity between bread and durum wheat based on the sequences of ω, γ, and α-gliadins. The alignment of ω-gliadin revealed the highest polymorphism (52.1%) between bread and durum wheat, meanwhile, the alignment of γ and α-gliadins revealed very low polymorphism 6.6% and 15.4%, respectively. According to computational studies, all gliadins contain a lot of glutamine and proline residues. The analysis revealed that the bread wheat possessed ω and γ -gliadins with a lower content of proline and a higher content of glutamine than durum wheat. In contrast, durum wheat possessed α-gliadin with a lower content of proline and a higher content of glutamine than bread wheat. In conclusion, the SDS-PAGE, in silico and computational analyses are effective tools to determine the intra- and inter-genetic diversity in tetraploid and hexaploid wheat genotypes based on ω, γ, and α-gliadins profiles.

Life cycle assessment of fermentative production of lactic acid from bread waste based on process modelling using pinch technology.

Bread waste (BW), a rich source of fermentable carbohydrates, has the potential to be a sustainable feedstock for the production of lactic acid (LA). In our previous work, the LA concentration of 155.4 g/L was achieved from BW via enzymatic hydrolysis, which was followed by a techno-economic analysis of the bioprocess. This work evaluates the relative environmental performance of two scenarios - neutral and low pH fermentation processes for polymer-grade LA production from BW using a cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment (LCA). The LCA was based on an industrial-scale biorefinery process handling 100 metric tons BW per day modelled using Aspen Plus. The LCA results depicted that wastewater from anaerobic digestion (AD) (42.3-51 %) and cooling water utility (34.6-39.5 %), majorly from esterification, were the critical environmental hotspots for LA production. Low pH fermentation yielded the best results compared to neutral pH fermentation, with 11.4-11.5 % reduction in the overall environmental footprint. Moreover, process integration by pinch technology, which enhanced thermal efficiency and heat recovery within the process, led to a further reduction in the impacts by 7.2-7.34 %. Scenario and sensitivity analyses depicted that substituting ultrapure water with completely softened water and sustainable management of AD wastewater could further improve the environmental performance of the processes.

Dietary risk assessment of benzophenone derivatives using bread consumption estimates in a Taiwanese population.

Listed as endocrine-disrupting chemicals, benzophenone (BP) and its nine analogues (BPs) are an emerging group of contaminants. The migration of BPs from ultraviolet inks to food has been investigated in many studies; however, few studies have investigated BPs in foods and the risks of human exposure to BPs. We validated a trace and multi-residue method for simultaneously determining 10 BPs, including BP, BP-1, BP-2, BP-3, BP-8, 4-MBP, 2-OHBP, 4-OHBP, M2BB, and PBZ. Eighty-one bread samples were analyzed using stable isotope labeling and ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry with solid-liquid extraction. We determined the estimated daily intake of BPs, non-cancer risks, and lifetime cancer risks (LTCRs) from daily bread consumption for seven age groups using a Monte Carlo simulation. The method demonstrated robust linearity (R2 ≥ 0.991), low limits of detection (0.04-2 ng/g), and satisfactory precision. The intra- and interday relative standard deviation ranges were 0.6%-9% and 3%-20%, respectively. BP, 4-MBP, 2-OHBP, BP-1, and BP-3 were detected in 97%, 67%, 59%, 24%, and 23% of the samples, respectively. 2-OHBP had the highest mean (range) value of 18.3 (

Synthesis of lignin from waste leaves and its potential application for bread packaging: A waste valorization approach.

In this study, lignin was synthesized from the waste leaves of Ficus auriculata obtained after the extraction of gallic acid. The synthesized lignin was incorporated into PVA films, and the neat and blended films were characterized using different techniques. Lignin addition improved the UV-shielding, thermal, antioxidant, and mechanical properties of PVA films. The water solubility decreased from 31.86 % to 7.14 ± 1.94 %, while the water vapor permeability increased from 3.85 ± 0.21 × 10-7 g.m.h-1 Pa-1 to 7.84 ± 0.64 × 10-7 g.m.h-1 Pa-1 for pure PVA film and the film containing 5 % lignin, respectively. The prepared films showed a much better performance than commercial packaging films in inhibiting mold growth during the storage of preservative-free bread. The bread samples packed with commercial packaging showed signs of mold growth on the 3rd day, while the growth was inhibited entirely till the 15th day for PVA film containing 1 % lignin. The pure PVA film and the ones containing 3 % and 5 % of lignin inhibited growth till the 12th and 9th day, respectively. Findings from the current study show that safe, cheap, and eco-friendly biomaterials can hinder the growth of spoilage microorganisms and potentially be used in food packaging.

Determination of metal(oids) in different traditional flat breads distributed in Isfahan city, Iran: Health risk assessment study by latin hypercube sampling.

This survey was conducted to assess the metal(oids) content in 93 samples of bread, including barbari, lavash, and tafton, using inductive couple plasma/optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) method and atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). The amounts of measured element were compared with the permissible limit set for bread by FAO/WHO and Iranian National Standardization Organization (INSO). The limit of detection (LOD) was ranged from 6.6 × 10-5 to 2.1 × 10-2 mg l-1 with recoveries ranged from 92% to 102%. The average concentrations of aluminum (Al), arsenic (As), boron (B), cadmium (Cd), iron (Fe), mercury (Hg), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) in bread were 29.88 ±â€¯8, 0.03 ±â€¯0.004, 12.77 ±â€¯3.70, 0.01 ±â€¯0.006, 34.16 ±â€¯8.95, 0.01 ±â€¯0.008, 346.07 ±â€¯36.08, 3314.81 ±â€¯317.19, 0.24 ±â€¯0.11, and 19.65 ±â€¯4.66 mg Kg-1, respectively. Amounts of As, Cd, Hg, Mg, Pb, and Zn were lower, and those of Al, Fe, and Na were higher than the permissible limits defined by FAO/WHO. The Latin Hyper Cube (LHC) sampling results revealed that children were exposed to higher non-carcinogenic risk and adults were more threatened by carcinogenic risk. It is recommended to control the entrance of metals in bread in the farm-to-fork chain in order to prevent probable future health challenges.

Functional Bread Produced in a Circular Economy Perspective: The Use of Brewers' Spent Grain.

Brewers' spent grain (BSG) is the main by-product of the brewing industry, corresponding to ~85% of its solid residues. The attention of food technologists towards BSG is due to its content in nutraceutical compounds and its suitability to be dried, ground, and used for bakery products. This work was aimed to investigate the use of BSG as a functional ingredient in bread-making. BSGs were characterised for formulation (three mixtures of malted barley and unmalted durum (Da), soft (Ri), or emmer (Em) wheats) and origin (two cereal cultivation places). The breads enriched with two different percentages of each BSG flour and gluten were analysed to evaluate the effects of replacements on their overall quality and functional characteristics. Principal Component Analysis homogeneously grouped BSGs by type and origin and breads into three sets: the control bread, with high values of crumb development, a specific volume, a minimum and maximum height, and cohesiveness; Em breads, with high values of IDF, TPC, crispiness, porosity, fibrousness, and wheat smell; and the group of Ri and Da breads, which have high values of overall smell intensity, toasty smell, pore size, crust thickness, overall quality, a darker crumb colour, and intermediate TPC. Based on these results, Em breads had the highest concentrations of nutraceuticals but the lowest overall quality. Ri and Da breads were the best choice (intermediate phenolic and fibre contents and overall quality comparable to that of control bread). Practical applications: the transformation of breweries into biorefineries capable of turning BSG into high-value, low-perishable ingredients; the extensive use of BSGs to increase the production of food commodities; and the study of food formulations marketable with health claims.

Durum Wheat Bread with a Potentially High Health Value through the Addition of Durum Wheat Thin Bran or Barley Flour.

The enrichment of semolina bread with prebiotic ingredients such as ß-glucans may exert health-promoting effects. This work presents the results of a general recipe development aimed at improving the nutritional value of bakery products. In this study, increasing amounts (0%, 2%, 5%, 7%, and 10%) of thin bran or barley flour were added into re-milled durum wheat semolina to prepare breads. The technological quality of doughs and breads was investigated. In general, the Farinograph water absorption of flour and dough stability increased with increasing inclusion levels of barley flour or thin bran (up to 73.23% and 18.75 min, respectively), contrarily to the increase of dough development time only in barley inclusion (4.55 min). At the same time, the softening index decreased for almost all of these, except for 2% of thin bran or barley flour inclusion. At Mixograph, mixing time increased (up to 5.13 min) whilst the peak height decreased. The specific volume and hardness of loaf differently decreased for almost all thesis (ranges 12.6-24.0% and 39.4-45.5%, respectively). The other quality parameters remained unchanged compared with semolina bread. After baking, ß-glucan levels increased differently at all the inclusion levels (2.35-fold, on average). The breadcrumb color was deep brown, while the crust became lighter in color. The breads contain ß-glucans even at low percentages of barley/bran inclusions while maintaining their technological performance. In conclusion, the results show an interesting potential of barley flour or thin bran as ingredients in breadmaking to increase the ß-glucans daily intake, but further investigations are needed to achieve improved quality features.

Bee Pollen and Bread as a Super-Food: A Comparative Review of Their Metabolome Composition and Quality Assessment in the Context of Best Recovery Conditions.

Recently, functional foods have been a subject of great interest in dietetics owing not only to their nutritional value but rather their myriad of health benefits. Moreover, an increase in consumers' demands for such valuable foods warrants the development in not only production but rather tools of quality and nutrient assessment. Bee products, viz., pollen (BP) and bread, are normally harvested from the flowering plants with the aid of bees. BP is further subjected to a fermentation process in bee hives to produce the more valuable and bioavailable BB. Owing to their nutritional and medicinal properties, bee products are considered as an important food supplements rich in macro-, micro-, and phytonutrients. Bee products are rich in carbohydrates, amino acids, vitamins, fatty acids, and minerals in addition to a myriad of phytonutrients such as phenolic compounds, anthocyanins, volatiles, and carotenoids. Moreover, unsaturated fatty acids (USFAs) of improved lipid profile such as linoleic, linolenic, and oleic were identified in BP and BB. This work aims to present a holistic overview of BP and BB in the context of their composition and analysis, and to highlight optimized extraction techniques to maximize their value and future applications in nutraceuticals.

Health risk assessment of process-related contaminants in bread.

Bread constitutes a popular and even daily component of human diet world-wide, Iran included. However, there are concerns that various processing methods such as frying and baking could result in the production of potentially a source of known carcinogens such as acrylamide (AA) and benzo(a)pyrene (BaP). The present study tried to perform a risk assessment on seven categories of bread consumers, based on age and gender, calculating the Target Hazard Quotient (THQ), Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR), and Margin of Exposure (MOE) related to the dietary intake of AA and BaP. AA and BaP were analyzed in 87 bread samples using LC-MS/MS and GC-MS/MS, respectively. The results indicated that more than 94% (mean concentration: 25.9 ng/g) and about 20% (mean concentration: 1.98 ng/g) of the samples were contaminated with AA and BaP, respectively. The THQ of AA intake through bread consumption for seven categories was in the following decreasing order: semi-industrial Sangak bread of Shiraz (SIS-Sh)> traditional Sangak bread of Shiraz (TS-Sh)> traditional Sangak bread of Tehran (TS-Th)> commercial bread of Tehran (C-Th). The non-neoplastic and neoplastic MOE for AA (˂10,000) indicates a high risk of exposure for all people in Tehran and Shiraz through the consumption of all tested bread. Due to the consumption of TS, SIS, and C bread, the BaP MOE for all people in Tehran and Shiraz was >10 000, which shows a low health risk for consumers. Our findings showed that ILCR for AA in seven classes of people who had TS-Sh and TS-Th was remarkably higher than ILCR for all categories that consumed the C-Th. BaP ILCR for the people who ingested TS-Th, TS-Sh, SIS-Th, and SIS-Sh was about 2-4 times higher than people who had C-Th. This study indicates that bread is the main source of AA and BaP intake in Iran, which might elevate the cancer risk.

A pleiotropic QTL increased economic water use efficiency in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.).

Wheat is one of the most important food crops in the world and drought can severely impact on wheat productivity. The identification and deployment of genes for improved water use efficiency (WUE) can help alleviate yield loss under water limitation. In this study, a high-density genetic linkage map of wheat recombinant inbred lines (Ningchun 4 x Ningchun 27) containing 8751 specific locus amplified fragment (SLAF) tags (including 14757 SNPs), with a total map distance of 1685 cM and an average inter-marker map distance of 0.19 cM was constructed by SLAF-seq technology. The economic yield WUE and nine related traits under three water treatments was monitored over four years. The results showed that loci conditioning WUE were also associated with grain carbon isotope discrimination (CID), flag leaf chlorophyll content, plant height, 1000-grain weight, grain weight per spike and grain number per spike. One locus on chromosome 2B explained 26.3% WUE variation in multiple environments. Under good soil moisture conditions before flowering, the high CID genotype QWue.acn-2B Ningchun 27, was associated with WUE, high grain weight per spike, and kilo-grain weight. Under rain-fed conditions, the low CID genotype QWue.acn-2B Ningchun 4 tended to maintain more spike number and was associated with improved WUE and yield. The introduction of good chromosome fragments of QWue.acn-2B into elite lines by molecular marker assisted selection will boost up the cultivation of high-yield and water-saving wheat varieties.

Assessment of the Starch-Amylolytic Complex of Rye Flours by Traditional Methods and Modern One.

The properties of the starch-amylolytic complex of commercial low-extract rye flour were determined based on the traditional method, such as falling number and amylograph test as well as differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The starch, pentosans and protein had a significant effect on the thermal properties of the tested rye flours. Based on the falling number, it was revealed that rye flours were characterized by medium and low alpha-amylase activity. The falling number and amylograph test are not sufficient methods to determine the suitability of currently produced rye flours for bread making. The gelatinization process of the rye flour starch could be evaluated by the DSC test, which, together with the falling number and amylograph test, may allow a better way to evaluate the usefulness of rye flours for bread making. Many significant correlations between parameters determined by DSC endotherm and quality parameters of rye bread, such as volume and crumb hardness, were reported. Breads made from flour with higher enthalpy in DSC were characterized by higher volume and softer crumb.

Quality Assessment of Wheat Bread Incorporating Chia Seeds.

The aim of this study was to develop a concept of production for wheat bread enriched with chia seeds and to examine selected physicochemical properties. The examined product was wheat-flour bread made by a single-phase method, using yeast. The production concept assumed the modification of the recipe by replacing part of the wheat flour (1 or 5% w/w) with whole (CHw) or ground chia seeds (CHg). Bread quality was determined by calculating: dough yield, bread yield, baking loss, total baking loss and loaf volumes. Color was determined using the CIE L*a*b* system. In the texture analysis, the following texture parameters were measured: hardness, cohesion, chewiness and elasticity. The contents of crude fat, crude fiber, total protein, total ash and the total content of polyphenols were assessed to characterize the nutritive value of the bread. The breads with 1% addition of chia (1%CHw, 1%CHg) were characterized by the highest volume of loaves, which increased by at least 8.6% compared to the control bread (C), while in the case of 5% chia, the loaf volume depended on the form of seeds (better results were obtained with whole seeds). Substituting wheat flour with 1% chia seeds (whole or ground) resulted in a significant increase in nutritional value. For potential bread manufacturers, from a technological and economic point of view, replacing wheat flour with whole chia seeds at 1% (w/w) is most advantageous, compared to 5% (w/w).