Patrones de costos de atención a pacientes con enfermedades isquémicas del corazón en el Instituto Nacional Cardiovascular, 2019 / Cost patterns of care for patients with ischemic heart disease at the Instituto Nacional Cardiovascular, 2019

RESUMEN Introducción. La enfermedad isquémica del corazón (EIC) es actualmente un problema de salud pública en el Perú, y su tratamiento tiende a ser muy costoso para el sistema de salud. Objetivo. Establecer los patrones de costos de atención de las EIC en el Instituto Nacional Cardiovascular (INCOR) de la Seguridad Social en Salud del Perú (EsSalud). Métodos. Se utilizaron las bases de datos de atenciones, cirugías, egresos y valor bruto de la producción del INCOR de la población diagnosticada y atendida con EIC en el año 2019 (879 pacientes). Se estimaron los costos de las atenciones mediante costeo basado en actividad; se utilizó un modelo econométrico para establecer los determinantes de los costos, y con el método de distancia euclidiana se formaron "clústeres" con características similares para establecer patrones de costos. Resultados. El costo de atención de EIC más alto fue de 148 567 soles (US$ 44 830) para un paciente con 40 días de estancia. Fueron principales determinantes del costo de la atención la estancia hospitalaria y el número de ingresos al establecimiento. Se identificó que los "clúster" que tuvieron un costo mayor, fueron pacientes con edad de 70 y 72 años como mediana, con altos número de días de estancia y con alguna cirugía de alta complejidad. Conclusión. Los patrones de costos de la atención de la EIC estuvieron asociados a la estancia y los reingresos al establecimiento de salud. Los "clústers" con mayor costo estuvieron relacionados a la edad y complejidad de la cirugía.

ABSTRACT Introduction. Ischemic heart disease (IHD) is currently a public health problem in Peru, and its treatment tends to be very expensive for the health system. Goal. Establish the patterns of care costs of the EIC in the National Cardiovascular Institute (INCOR) of the Social Security in Health of Peru (EsSalud). Methods. The databases of care, surgeries, discharges and gross value of INCOR production of the population diagnosed and treated with IHD in 2019 (879 patients) were used. Costs of care were estimated using activity-based costing; an econometric model was used to establish the determinants of costs, and with the Euclidean distance method, "clusters" with similar characteristics were formed to establish cost patterns. Results. The highest cost of EIC care was 148 567 soles (US$ 44 830) for a patient with a 40-day stay. The main determinants of the cost of care were the hospital stay and the number of admissions to the establishment. It was identified that the "clusters" that had a higher cost were patients with a median age of 70 and 72 years, with a high number of days of stay and with some highly complex surgery. Conclusion. Cost patterns for IHD care were associated with length of stay and readmissions to the health facility. The "clusters" with the highest cost were related to age and complexity of the surgery.

Economic evaluation of complete revascularization versus stress echocardiography-guided revascularization in the STEACS with multivessel disease.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES: Economic studies may help decision making in the management of multivessel disease in the setting of myocardial infarction. We sought to perform an economic evaluation of CROSS-AMI (Complete Revascularization or Stress Echocardiography in Patients With Multivessel Disease and ST-Segment Elevation Acute Myocardial Infarction) randomized clinical trial. METHODS: We performed a cost minimization analysis for the strategies (complete angiographic revascularization [ComR] and selective stress echocardiography-guided revascularization [SelR]) compared in the CROSS-AMI clinical trial (N=306), attributable the initial hospitalization and readmissions during the first year of follow-up, using current rates for health services provided by our health system. RESULTS: The index hospitalization costs were higher in the ComR group than in SelR arm (19 657.9±6236.8 € vs 14 038.7±4958.5 €; P <.001). There were no differences in the costs of the first year of follow-up rehospitalizations between both groups for (ComR 2423.5±4568.0 vs SelR 2653.9±5709.1; P=.697). Total cost was 22 081.3±7505.6 for the ComR arm and 16 692.6±7669.9 for the SelR group (P <.001). CONCLUSIONS: In the CROSS-AMI trial, the initial extra economic costs of the ComR versus SelR were not offset by significant savings during follow-up. SelR seems to be more efficient than ComR in patients with ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndrome and multivessel disease treated by emergent angioplasty. Study registred at ClinicalTrial.gov (Identifier: NCT01179126).

Modelo de promoción de salud dirigido a la población con riesgo de cardiopatía isquémica / Model of health promotion directed to population at risk of ischemic heart disease

Introducción: para el desarrollo de esta investigación se partió de reconocer la importancia que tiene la reducción de los factores de riesgo de cardiopatía isquémica y la necesidad de fortalecer las acciones de promoción de la salud y la educación para la salud en el contexto cubano, sustentada en el principio del mejoramiento y desarrollo continuo de los procesos. Se dispone de modelos y teorías internacionales que abordan esta problemática; pero no se ajustan completamente a la impronta cubana. Objetivo: diseñar un modelo de promoción de la salud dirigido a la población con factores de riesgo de cardiopatía isquémica. Materiales y métodos: se utilizó la triangulación metodológica, los grupos focales y encuestas con expertos, usuarios, líderes formales, informales, sujetos con factores de riesgo de cardiopatía isquémica y familias. Resultados: el modelo tiene una estructura que define dos dimensiones y seis categorías que se interrelacionan en forma dinámica. Conclusiones: se demostró la factibilidad y pertinencia del modelo de promoción de salud dirigido a la población con factores de riesgo de cardiopatía isquémica en la atención primaria de salud (AU).

Introduction: the basis to carry out this research was recognizing the importance of reducing the risk factors of ischemic heart disease and the necessity of strengthening the health promotion and educative actions in the Cuban context, on the principle of the continuous improvement and development of the processes. There are international models and theories approaching this topics, but they are not completely adjusted to the Cuban reality. Objective: to design a model of health promotion directed to the population with risk factors of ischemic heart disease. Materials and methods: we used the methodological triangulation, focal groups and surveys with experts, users, formal and informal leaders, persons with heart disease risk factors and relatives. Results: the model has a structure defining two dimensions and six categories interrelated in a dynamical way. Conclusions: the feasibility and pertinence of the health promotion model, directed to the population with risk factors of ischemic heart disease in the primary health care, was showed (AU).

Ventajas éticas, tecnológicas y económicas de la perfusión miocárdica en la cardiopatía isquémica / Ethical, technological, and economic advantages of myocardial perfusion in ischemic heart disea

Introducción: La alta prevalencia de la cardiopatía isquémica y el progresivo aumento de la esperanza de vida son factores que están contribuyendo de forma importante a que el dolor torácico constituya en estos momentos uno de los principales motivos de consulta hospitalaria. En Cuba, las enfermedades cardiovasculares representan la primera causa de muerte. Su diagnóstico, puede ser un reto. Objetivo: Presentar las ventajas éticas, tecnológicas y económicas de la perfusión miocárdica en el proceso diagnóstico de la cardiopatía isquémica. Material y Métodos: Fue realizada una búsqueda sistematizada de literatura primaria en bases de datos como Scielo, Sciencedirect y Elsevier. Resultados: En el presente artículo se analizó como problema social de la ciencia, la tecnología y la sociedad los estudios de perfusión miocárdica en la cardiopatía isquémica, teniendo especial atención en las implicaciones sociales, éticas, tecnológicas y económicas. Los estudios de perfusión miocárdica son ampliamente utilizados como métodos funcionales no invasivos para el diagnóstico de enfermedad coronaria. Es una técnica fácilmente realizable, con mínimas complicaciones y efectos secundarios, y en consecuencia con amplia aceptación por los pacientes. Conclusiones: Las investigaciones no invasivas para el estudio de la perfusión miocárdica tienen un lugar bien establecido en el proceso diagnóstico del paciente con cardiopatía isquémica con fines de diagnóstico precoz y estratificación de riesgo con altos índices de sensibilidad, especificidad y reproducibilidad y su incorporación a la práctica social asistencial tiene además sólidos fundamentos bioéticos y económicos(AU)

Introduction: The high prevalence of ischemic heart disease and the progressive increase in life expectancy are important factors contributing to the fact that chest pain is one of the main reasons for hospital consultation. In Cuba, cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death. Your diagnosis can be challenging. Objective: To present the ethical, technological and economic advantages of myocardial perfusion in the diagnostic process of ischemic heart disease. Material and Methods: A systematized search of primary literature was carried out in databases such as Scielo, Sciencedirect and Elsevier. Results: In the present article, the studies of myocardial perfusion in ischemic heart disease were analyzed as a social problem of science, technology and society, paying particular attention to the social, ethical, technological and economic implications. Myocardial perfusion studies are widely used as noninvasive functional methods for the diagnosis of coronary heart disease. It is a technique easily performed, with minimal complications and side effects, and consequently with wide acceptance by the patients. Conclusions: Noninvasive investigations for the study of myocardial perfusion have a well established place in the diagnostic process of the patient with ischemic heart disease for the purposes of early diagnosis and risk stratification with high sensitivity, specificity and reproducibility indexes and their incorporation into the social welfare practice also has solid bioethical and economic foundations(AU)

Contrapulsación externa aumentada, un tratamiento no invasivo recomendado para la angina refractaria, valoración de la clase funcional y la calidad de vida / Enhanced external counterpulsation, a non-invasive therapy recommended for refractory angina. Functional class and quality of life

Resumen Introducción: La enfermedad coronaria es una causa importante de la morbilidad y la mortalidad en el mundo. Dentro de este grupo, se encuentran los pacientes con angina refractaria. Objetivo: El objetivo de la investigación fue evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de la contrapulsación externa aumentada con 35 sesiones de una hora, en una población atendida desde diciembre de 2013 hasta noviembre de 2015. Materiales y métodos: Se realizó un estudio observacional analítico de cohorte concurrente. Se seleccionaron los pacientes que fueron remitidos para contrapulsación. A todos se les realizó una evaluación incial y a los seis meses de la clase funcional de angina según la Canadian Cardiovascular Society y disnea de la New York Heart Association, se valoraron los medicamentos recibidos y procedimientos realizados. Se aplicó el cuestionario de calidad de vida EQ - 5 D antes y a los seis meses. Para establecer la presencia de diferencias en el seguimiento en la clase funcional, la calidad de vida al inicio y a los seis meses, se utilizó la prueba no paramétrica de Wilcoxon para datos pareados, con un nivel de significación menor de 0,05. Las estadísticas fueron analizadas con el programa SPSS versión 20,0. Resultados: El análisis inicial de 74 pacientes, 50 hombres (67,6%), el promedio de edad 65,5 años. Al inicio de la terapia el 74,4% de los pacientes, se encontraban con disnea clase II - III de la New York Heart Association y el 77% con angina II - III de la Canadian Cardiovascular Society. La mediana de la fracción de eyección fue 50,5% (35,0 - 60,0). Los antecedentes más importantes fueron: la hipertensión arterial 62 (83,8%) y la diabetes mellitus 28 (37,8%). Medicamentos recibidos para la angina y procedimientos realizados: betabloqueadores 74 (100%), estatinas 71 (95,9%), aspirina 67 (90,5%), inhibidores de la enzima convertidora de angiotensina/bloqueadores de los receptores de angiotensina 64 (86,5%), trimetazidina 56 (75,7%), nitratos 37 (50%), calcioantagonistas 20 (27%), ivabradina 15 (20,3%), revascularización quirúrgica 41 (55,4%), revascularización percutánea 51 (68,9%), rehabilitación cardiovascular 45 (60,8%) y uso de dispositivos como el marcapasos, el cardiodesfibrilador o el Cardiodesfibrilador con resincronizador 19 (25,6%). A los seis meses se analizaron 45 pacientes que habían terminado el tratamiento, encontrando que el 91,1% estaba en clase I - II de disnea de la New York Heart Association y el 93,2% clase I - II de angina de la Canadian Cardiovascular Society (p < 0,01 para ambos). En la evaluación de la calidad de vida se revisaron 36 pacientes que llenaron el instrumento EQ - 5 D, encontrando una mejoría significativa en la variable de movilidad (p = 0,021) y en la escala visual análoga de salud, con una mediana inicial de 70,0 (RIQ: 50,0 - 80,0), que mejoró a los 6 meses a 80 (RIQ: 70,0 - 90,0), p = 0,003. No se encontraron complicaciones con la contrapulsación. Conclusiones: La terapia de contrapulsación externa aumentada, mejora la calidad de vida y la clase funcional de angina y disnea en pacientes con angina refractaria y se convierte en un procedimiento no invasivo seguro y eficaz.

Abstract Introduction: Coronary disease is an important cause for morbidity and mortality worldwide. Within this group there are patients with refractory angina. Objective: The goal of this investigation was to assess efficiency and security of enhanced external counterpulsation (EECP) with 35 one-hour sessions, in a population assisted between December 2013 and November 2015. Material and methods: Analytical observational recurrent cohort study. Patients who were referred for counterpulsation were selected. All of them were assessed in the beginning and after six months of the functional class of angina according to the Canadian Cardiovascular Society (CCS) and dyspnoea to the New York Heart Association (NYHA). Medication received and the procedures carried out were evaluated. The EQ-5D quality of life questionnaire was applied before and after six months. In order to establish the presence of differences in the follow-up of the functional class, the quality of life in the beginning and after six months, the Wilcoxon nonparametric test for paired data was used, with a significance level below 0.05. Data were analysed using SPSS version 20.0. Results: Initial analysis of 74 patients, 50 men (67.6%), with an average age of 65.5 years. In the beginning of the therapy 74.4% of patients had class II - III dyspnoea (NYHA) and 77% class II - III angina (CCS). The median ejection fraction was 50.5% (35.0 - 60.0). The most important previous conditions were arterial hypertension 62 (83.8%) and diabetes mellitus 28 (37.8%). Medication received for angina and conducted procedures: betablockers 74 (100%), statins 71 (95.9%), aspirin 67 (90.5%), angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors/angiotensin receptor antagonists 64 (86.5%), trimetazidine 56 (75.7%), nitrates 37 (50%), calcium antagonists 20 (27%), ivabradine 15 (20.3%), surgical revascularisation 41 (55.4%), percutaneous revascularisation 51 (68.9%), cardiovascular rehabilitation 45 (60.8%) and use of devices such as pacemakers, implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (CDI) or ICDs with synchronizers 19 (25.6%). After six months 45 patients who had finished the treatment were analysed, revealing that 91.1% was in class I - II dyspnoea (NYHA) and 93.2% were class I - II angina (CCS) (p < 0.01 for both). For the quality of life assessment 36 patients who has filled out the EQ-5D were reviewed, thus finding a significant improvement in the mobility variable (p = 0.021) and the visual analogue scale, with an initial median of 70.0 (RIQ: 50.0 - 80.0), that improved after six months to 80 (RIQ: 70.0 - 90.0), p = 0.003. No complications for counterpulsation were found. Conclusions: Enhanced external counterpulsation therapy improves quality of life and functional class of angina and dyspnoea in patients with refractory angina and becomes a non-invasive, safe and efficient procedure.

Estudo dos custos das internações por cardiopatia isquêmica em indivíduos com e sem diabetes mellitus em centro de referência cardiológico do Sistema Único de Saúde brasileiro / Study of costs of admissions for ischemic heart disease in individuals with and without diabetes mellitus in cardiac reference center brazilian Unified Health System

Objetivos: Estimar os custos diretos das internações hospitalares decorrentes de cardiopatia isquê- mica, em pacientes com (DM) e sem diabetes mellitus (NDM). Verificar fatores determinantes de maior custo em ambos os grupos. Métodos: Coorte retrospectiva com 421 pacientes, entre janeiro de 2009 e março de 2010. Foram avaliados: tratamentos clínicos, intervenções hemodinâmicas e cirurgias. Custos obtidos de três formas diferentes: por valores oriundos do Sistema de Gerenciamento da Tabela de Procedimentos, Medicamentos e Órteses, Próteses e Materiais Especiais do Sistema Único de Saúde ­ SIGTAP, faturados pela unidade hospitalar, e busca ativa de recursos utilizados pelo paciente, denominado "custos da internação". Os dados foram comparados pelo teste não paramé-trico de Mann-Whitney; p ≤ 0,05 indicou testes estatisticamente significantes; análises realizadas pelo programa R, versão 3.1.0. Resultados: Foram avaliados 421 pacientes, 45,4% eram cardiopatas diabéticos (DM). Não ocorreram diferenças estatisticamente significantes para os valores de custos encontrados em nenhum dos grupos avaliados. Os itens determinantes de maior custo nos procedimentos de cirurgia cardíaca são os materiais e medicamentos que respondem a 41,9% do custo total no grupo DM e 48,4 no grupo NDM. No tratamento clínico são o procedimento de hemodiálise para DM (69,8%) e serviços profissionais para NDM (50,6%). Para intervenções hemodinâmicas, os procedimentos secundários geram maior custo para DM (48,8%) e os serviços profissionais para NDM (75,6%). Conclusões: Não houve impacto financeiro atribuível ao diabetes na internação hospitalar de pacientes cardíacos. Serviços profissionais, materiais e medicamentos, hemodiálise e procedimentos secundários são os determinantes de maior custo nos grupos de intervenções avaliados.

Objectives: Estimate the direct costs in hospital admissions due to ischemic heart disease in two patients groups: with diabetes mellitus (DM) and without diabetes mellitus (NDM). Verify which factors are most relevant for the cost in each group. Methods: Retrospective cohort with 421 patients, between January 2009 and March 2010. We evaluated the clinical treatments, hemodynamic interventions and surgeries. Costs were obtained from three sources: Procedures Table Management System, Drugs and Orthosis, Prosthesis and Material Unified Health System ­ SIGTAP; invoiced by the hospital and active search for resources used by the patient called 'hospitalization costs'. The groups were compared using the Mann-Whitney test; p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant; analyzes conducted on R version 3.1.0 program. Results: We evaluated 421 patients, 45.4% were diabetic heart disease (DM). There were no statistically significant differences in the cost values between the groups. We verified that the relevant factors for higher costs are materials and drugs (DM = 41,9%; NDM = 48,4%) on surgical patients; hemodyalisis procedure for DM group (69,8%) and professional costs for NDM group (50,6%) on clinical treatment patients; secondary procedures for DM group (48,8%) and professional costs for NDM group (75,6%) on hemodynamic interventions patients. Conclusion: There was no differential financial impact attributable to diabetes in hospital cardiac patients. Professional services, material and drugs, hemodyalisis and secondary procedures are the most relevant for higher cost on analysed groups.

Factores de riesgo de la cardiopatía isquémica / Risk factors in ischemic heart disease

Introducción: la enfermedad arterial coronaria es una de las principales causas de mortalidad en todo el mundo. En su fisiopatología juega un papel importante el desarrollo y la progresión de la aterosclerosis coronaria, la cual está íntimamente relacionada con determinados hábitos de vida y ciertas características personales que se conocen como factores de riesgo. Objetivo: actualizar a los profesionales de la Atención Primaria de Salud sobre los factores de riesgo de la Cardiopatía Isquémica. Métodos: se realizó una revisión bibliográfica en libros de Medicina y artículos científicos disponibles en revistas digitales, a través de buscadores de información. Se accedió a diferentes fuentes de información como bases de datos, libros electrónicos, revistas electrónicas, etcétera, de infomed e internet. Luego se hizo un análisis crítico sobre el tema, avalado por la en contrado en la literatura consultada. Desarrollo: la situación de las enfermedades cardiovascularesen el mundo ha pasado por distintas fases, en correspondencia con el desarrollo socioeconómico de los países y el aumento en la incidencia de los distintos factores de riesgo, los cuales influyen de manera diferente en la aparición de la Cardiopatía Isquémica. Conclusiones: es importante conocer la influencia de cada factor de riesgo cardiovascular en la aparición de la Cardiopatía Isquémica para tomar estrategias encaminadas al control de los mismos y evitar llegar a la enfermedad...

Introduction: coronary artery disease is one of the main causes of mortality worldwide. An important role in the physiopathology of this disease is played by the development and progression of coronary artherosclerosis which is closely related to certain life habits and individual characteristics known as risk factors. Objective: to provide the primary health care professionals with an updating on the risk factors of ischemic heart disease. Method: a literature review including medical books and scientific articles from on line journals was made through the use of information searchers. It was possible to have access to several sources of information such as databases, electronic books, electronic journals, etc from Infomed and Internet. Finally, a critical analysis of the topic, supported on the findings of this literature, was made. Discussion: the situation of cardiovascular diseases worldwide has undergone several phases according to the social and economic development of the nations and the increase of the incidence of a number of factors affecting in different ways the occurrence of ischemic heart disease. Conclusions: it is important to know about the influence of each cardiovascular risk factor over the occurrence of ischemic heart disease in order to draw strategies for their control and to prevent the disease...

[Ischaemic heart disease]. / Cardiopatía isquémica.

In the year 2011, cardiovascular diseases were responsible of 31.2% of total deaths in Spain. The absolute number of cases of acute coronary syndrome in this year will be approximately 115,752 cases (95%CI: 114,822-116,687). The prevalence of stable angina in the population aged 25-74 years is 2.6% in men and 3.5% in women. Cardiovascular diseases were in the year 2011 the first cause of hospitalizations representing 14.1% of the total hospitalizations. Diagnose of ischaemic heart disease and acute myocardial infarction were responsible of 110,950 and 50,064 hospitalizations, respectively. In the year 2003, the hospitalization rate was 314 while in the year 2011 was 237 per 100,000, a reduction of 24.4%. The average cost of hospitalization due to ischaemic heart disease in 1997 was 3,093.7euros while in the year 2011 was 7,028.71euros. Cardiovascular mortality rates have decreased from 2007 to 2011, showing a relative reduction of 7% in women and 8% in men. With regard to myocardial infarction, it was observed a relative reduction of 17% in men and 20% in women. According to EUROASPIREIII survey done in 8,966 patients with ischaemic heart disease in Europe, 17% of patients were still smokers, 35% were obese, 56% has uncontrolled blood pressure, 51% has raised blood cholesterol and 25% were diabetics. With regard to drugs utilisation, 91% were treated with antiplatelets agents, 80% with beta blockers, 71% with ACE inhibitors/ARBs.

Evaluación del haz espinotalámico mediante tractografía por resonancia magnética: nuevos aportes en la fisiopatología del dolor en pacientes con síndrome X / Spinothalamic Assessment by Magnetic Resonance Tractography: new Contributions in the Pathophysiology of Pain in Patients with Syndrome X

Introducción El síndrome X se asocia con signos y síntomas de isquemia, sin obstrucción significativa de las arterias coronarias. En los pacientes con este síndrome existe un aumento en la percepción de los estímulos cardíacos, aunque la causa de este trastorno se desconoce. Objetivo Explorar los tractos nerviosos sensitivos involucrados en la percepción anormal del dolor en mujeres que sufren de síndrome X. Material y métodos Estudio prospectivo que incluyó 24 mujeres: 12 con síndrome X, 6 con enfermedad coronaria documentada y 6 controles sanas. Se realizó el mapeo del tracto espinotalámico lateral mediante tractografía por difusión. Se analizaron las características anatómicas (líneas, vóxels, longitud) y físicas (anisotropía fraccional, coeficiente de difusión aparente, difusividad) de cada tracto. Resultados El haz espinotalámico lateral se pudo aislar en todas las pacientes evaluadas. No hubo diferencias en las características físicas de los tractos, pero existió una diferencia significativa en el número de vóxels de los tres grupos a expensas del grupo síndrome X (101,2 ± 46,9 vs. 83,2 ± 24 vs. 66 ± 16; p = 0,030), con una tendencia a presentar un número mayor de líneas en cada tracto. Conclusiones Se hallaron diferencias en las características anatómicas de los tractos de las pacientes con síndrome X respecto de los controles sanos y de las pacientes con enfermedad coronaria, con indemnidad en las características físicas de las fibras. Es probable que este estudio experimental sea el primero en demostrar que es posible evaluar in vivo los tractos neurológicos involucrados en la transmisión del dolor en este grupo de pacientes, lo cual abre un nuevo campo de investigación.

Background Syndrome X is associated with signs and symptoms of ischemia without significant coronary artery obstruction. There is an increased perception of cardiac stimuli in these patients, although the cause of this disorder is unknown. Objective The aim of this study was to analyze sensory nerve tracts involved in abnormal perception of pain in women with syndrome X. Methods This prospective study included 24 women: 12 with syndrome X; 6 with documented coronary heart disease, and 6 healthy controls. Lateral spinothalamic tract mapping by diffusion trac-tography was performed. The anatomic features (lines, voxels, and length) and physical features (fractional anisotropy, apparent diffusion coefficient, diffusivity) of each tract were analyzed. Results The lateral spinothalamic tract was isolated in all patients. No differences were found in the physical characteristics of the tracts, but there was a significant difference in the number of voxels of the syndrome X group when compared to the other two groups (101.2±46.9 vs. 83.2±24 vs. 66±16; p=0.030), with a tendency towards larger number of lines in each tract. Conclusions There were differences in the anatomic characteristics of tracts in syndrome X patients with respect to healthy controls and coronary artery disease patients, with indemnity in the physical characteristics of the fibers. This is probably the first experimental study to show that it is possible to evaluate "in vivo" neurological tracts involved in pain transmission in syndrome X patients, opening a new field of research.

Biomarcadores cardíacos na avaliação da síndrome coronariana aguda: [revisão] / Cardiac biomarkers for assessment of acute coronary syndrome: [review]

Objetivos: abordar o uso dos biomarcadores cardíacos associados à necrose, inflamação, desestabilização da placa, isquemia e disfunção cardíaca na avaliação da síndrome coronariana aguda a fim de propiciar a melhor compreensão sobre as vantagens e desvantagens do uso clínico desses biomarcadores laboratoriais.Fonte de dados: artigos científicos originais e de revisão indexados nas bases de dados PubMed e SciELO.Síntese dos dados: as doenças cardiovasculares, especialmente a síndrome coronariana aguda, representam a principal causa de mortalidade no Brasil e no mundo, sendo que seu contínuo crescimento representa uma das questões de saúde pública mais relevantes da atualidade. Nesse sentido, os biomarcadores cardíacos constituem elementos fundamentais para o diagnóstico da síndrome coronariana aguda, sendo que as troponinas cardíacas continuam sendo consideradas o padrão ouro para o diagnóstico. Com o desenvolvimento dos recentes métodos ultrassensíveis para mensuração das troponinas cardíacas, tem sido possível detectar a lesão cardíaca dentro de duas horas, melhorando substancialmente o diagnóstico precoce do infarto agudo do miocárdio. Outros biomarcadores vêm apresentando relevância, especialmente em relação ao prognóstico e estratificação de risco dos pacientes com cardiopatia isquêmica.Conclusões: vários marcadores têm apresentado eficácia na detecção da necrose, isquemia, inflamação, desestabilização da placa e disfunção cardíaca. No entanto, as troponinas cardíacas continuam sendo consideradas o padrão ouro para o diagnóstico do infarto agudo do miocárdio.

Aims: To address the use of cardiac biomarkers associated with necrosis, inflammation, plaque destabilization, and cardiac ischemia in the evaluation of acute coronary syndrome in order to provide a better understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of the clinical use of these biomarkers.Source of data: Scientific original and review articles from the PubMed and SciELO databases.Summary of findings: Cardiovascular diseases, especially acute coronary syndrome, are the leading cause of mortality in Brazil and worldwide, and its continued growth is one of public health issues most relevant today. In this sense, the cardiac biomarkers are key to the diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome, and the cardiac troponins are still considered the gold standard for its diagnosis. With the recent development of ultra-sensitive methods for measuring cardiac troponins, it has been possible to detect heart damage within two hours, substantially improving the early diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction. Other biomarkers have been showing relevance, especially in relation to prognosis and risk stratification of patients with ischemic heart disease.Conclusions: Several biomarkers have shown efficacy in the detection of necrosis, ischemia, inflammation, plaque destabilization and cardiac dysfunction. However, cardiac troponins are still considered the gold standard for diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction.

Morbilidad y mortalidad por cardiopatía isquémica en el Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social. Estudio ecológico de tendencias en población amparada por el Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social entre 1990 y 2008 / Coronary heart disease morbidity and mortality trends at the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social. An ecological study of trends

Objetivo. Analizar el comportamiento secular de la morbilidad y mortalidad por cardiopatía isquémica en la población amparada por el Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social. Métodos. Se realizó un estudio ecológico de tendencias de la mortalidad y morbilidad por cardiopatía isquémica en los derechohabientes del Instituto. Las defunciones se corrigieron por la clasificación inapropiada y las tasas se ajustaron por edad con la distribución por edad propuesta por la Organización Mundial de la Salud. Se analizaron los egresos hospitalarios y la demanda de atención por cardiopatía isquémica e infarto, como medición indirecta de la incidencia. Se estimó la letalidad y el promedio de días de estancia hospitalaria. Resultados. La mortalidad por cardiopatía isquémica mostró una estabilización en los últimos años del siglo pasado y una tendencia al descenso en los primeros años de este siglo tanto en hombres (r = -0.84; r² =0.70; p <0.001) como en mujeres (r = -0.76; r² =0.57; p <0.001). La mortalidad tiene un efecto de edad y es mayor en hombres, sobre todo a edades tempranas (razón hombre-mujer = 3.44). La letalidad ha disminuido progresivamente y la edad promedio de muerte se ha incrementado en cuatro años en las dos últimas décadas. Conclusiones. La estabilización y posterior descenso de la mortalidad por cardiopatía isquémica probablemente se explique por mejoría en la atención y en la prevención secundaria. No obstante, es necesario fortalecer la prevención primaria modificando la exposición a los principales factores de riesgo cardiovascular.

Objective: To analyze secular trends of coronary heart disease morbidity and mortality in Mexicans protected by the Mexican Institute of Social Security. Methods: An ecological trend analysis study was conducted on coronary heart disease morbidity and mortality in the Mexican population protected by the Institute. All deaths were adjusted for miscoding and misclassification and rates were age-adjusted according to the age distribution proposed by the World Health Organization. Hospital discharges, as well as the number of patients seeking medical care for coronary heart disease, were analyzed as an indirect incidence measure. Fatality rates and the mean number of hospitalization days were also estimated. Results: Coronary heart disease mortality has shown a stable trend at the end of last century and a descending trend in the first years of this century, both in males (r= -0.84; r²=0.70; p <0.001) as in females (r = -0.76; r² =0.57; p <0.001). There is an age-effect on mortality; mortality is higher in males, mainly at younger ages (male-female rate = 3.44). Fatality rates have progressively decreased and the mean age of death has increased by four years in the last two decades. Conclusions: The stable trend and later descent on coronary heart disease mortality may be best explained by an increase in the quality of health care and secondary prevention. Nevertheless, there is a need to strengthen primary prevention by modifying exposure to major cardiovascular risk factors in Mexicans.

Impacto econômico dos casos de doença cardiovascular grave no Brasil: uma estimativa baseada em dados secundários / Economic burden of severe cardiovascular diseases in Brazil: an estimate based on secondary data

FUNDAMENTO: Há escassez de dados no Brasil para subsidiar a crescente preocupação sobre o impacto econômico das doenças cardiovasculares (DCV). OBJETIVO: Estimar os custos referentes aos casos de DCV grave no Brasil. MÉTODOS: O número de casos de DCV grave foi estimado a partir das taxas de letalidade e mortalidade dos pacientes hospitalizados. Estudos observacionais e bancos de dados nacionais foram utilizados para estimar os custos referentes à hospitalização, atendimento ambulatorial e benefícios pagos pela previdência. A perda da renda foi estimada com base nos dados do estudo de Carga de Doenças no Brasil. RESULTADOS: Aproximadamente dois milhões de casos de DCV grave foram relatados em 2004 no Brasil, representando 5,2 por cento da população acima de 35 anos de idade. O custo anual foi de, pelo menos, R$ 30,8 bilhões (36,4 por cento para a saúde, 8,4 por cento para o seguro social e reembolso por empregadores e 55,2 por cento como resultado da perda de produtividade), correspondendo a R$ 500,00 per capita (para a população de 35 anos e acima) e R$ 9.640,00 por paciente. Somente nesse subgrupo, os custos diretos em saúde corresponderam por 8 por cento do gasto total do país com saúde e 0,52 por cento do PIB (R$ 1.767 bilhões = 602 bilhões de dólares), o que corresponde a uma média anual de R$ 182,00 para os custos diretos per capita (R$ 87,00 de recursos públicos) e de R$ 3.514,00 por caso de DCV grave. CONCLUSÃO: Os custos anuais totais para cada caso de DCV grave foram significativos. Estima-se que tanto os custos per capita como aqueles correspondentes ao subgrupo de pacientes com DCV grave aumentem significativamente à medida que a população envelhece e a prevalência de casos graves aumente.

BACKGROUND: The scarce amount of data available in Brazil on the economic burden of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) does not justify the growing concern in regard to the economic burden involved. OBJECTIVE: The present study aims at estimating the costs of severe CVD cases in Brazil. METHODS: Cases of severe CVD were estimated based on hospitalized cases lethality and total CVD mortality rates. National data bases and sample studies were used to estimate costs of hospitalization, outpatient care, and social security benefits. Loss of income was estimated from the Burden of Disease in Brazil data. RESULTS: Approximately two million cases of severe CVD were reported in 2004 in Brazil. That accounts for 5.2 percent of the population over 35 years of age. The resulting annual cost was at least R$ 30.8 billion (36.4 percent for health care, 8.4 percent for social security and employers' reimbursements, and 55.2 percent due to loss in productivity). That corresponded to R$ 500.00 per capita (considering 35 year-old and older population) and R$ 9,400.00 per patient. Direct costs with health care from severe CVD cases accounted for 8 percent of total national expenditure on health and 0.52 percent of 2004 GNP (R$ 1,767 billion = US$ 602 billion). That corresponded to an yearly average direct cost of R$182.00 per capita (R$ 87.00 from public resources) and of R$ 3,514.00 per case. CONCLUSION: Total annual costs per severe CVD case were estimated to be significant. Costs per capita and total costs corresponding to this sub-group of CVD patients are expected to escalate as the population ages and the prevalence of severe cases increases.

Manejo contemporâneo da cardiopatia isquêmica: novos marcadores de risco, adesão às medidas terapêuticas e custos do tratamento / Contemporary management of ischemic heart disease: novel risk markers, adherence to therapeutic regimens and costs of medical care

O Ambulatório de Cardiopatia Isquêmica do Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre está em atividade há cerca de 7 anos, consistindo de equipe de médicos, estudantes de graduação e pós-graduação e nutricionistas. Além de prestar assistência ao paciente institucional do Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre e desenvolver o ensino em diferentes cenários, o ambulatório é dirigido à investigação clínica, cujos principais resultados são apresentados nesta revisão. Observamos aumento significativo na prescrição de fármacos orientada pela melhor evidência e a conseqüente melhora no controle de fatores de risco para doença arterial coronariana. Na avaliação dos custos do tratamento identificou-se elevado gasto com o tratamento farmacológico, o qual respondeu por 45% do custo anual total. Estudos recentes têm mostrado associação entre os níveis de proteína C reativa, obtidos em uma aferição isolada, com eventos cardiovasculares. Estamos investigando a associação entre medidas seriadas de proteína C reativa e eventos, demonstrando haver correlação entre níveis aumentados desta e desfechos. Estudos provenientes da literatura internacional têm mostrado associação entre anemia e desfechos em síndrome coronariana aguda; porém, nenhum trabalho avaliou incidência de desfechos em pacientes com doença arterial coronariana crônica e anemia. Em nossa coorte, encontramos uma razão de risco de 4,6 para eventos em pacientes anêmicos, mesmo após ajuste para outros fatores de risco. Os resultados descritos demonstram ser factível e desejável que, no contexto da assistência e ensino, desenvolva-se pesquisa, objetivo de atuação de serviços universitários.

The Outpatient Clinic for Ischemic Heart Disease at Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre has been effective for 7 years, with a staff of physicians, undergraduate and graduate medical students and nutritionists. Besides providing medical care and training in different scenarios, the clinic is devoted to clinical investigation, whose main contributions are outlined in this review. We verified a significant increase in the prescriptions based on the best evidence, and consequently, an improvement in the control of coronary artery disease risk factors. With regard to the evaluation of costs of medical care, we identified considerable costs on medications, which accounted for 45% of total annual costs. Recent reports have shown association between one determination of C reactive protein and cardiovascular events. We are evaluating serial C reactive protein measures and cardiovascular outcomes, showing the association of high C reactive protein levels and clinical outcomes. Studies found in the literature have demonstrated the association between anemia and acute coronary syndrome, but none has evaluated outcomes in patients with stable coronary artery disease and anemia. In our cohort, the hazard ratio for events in anemic patients was 4.6, which was still significant after adjustment for confounding. These results confirm that it is desirable and feasible to join clinical care, training of students and professionals and research in the clinical scenario, an aim typical of university-affiliated services.