Assessment of protein and phospholipid bioaccessibility in ultrafiltered buttermilk cheese using TIM-1 in vitro gastrointestinal methods.

To meet the high consumer demand, butter production has increased over the last few years. As a result, the buttermilk (BM) co-produced volumes require new ways of adding value, such as in cheese manufacturing. However, BM use in cheese milk negatively influences the cheesemaking process (e.g., altered coagulation properties) and the product's final quality (e.g., high moisture content). The concentration of BM by ultrafiltration (UF) could potentially facilitate its use in cheese manufacturing through an increased protein content while maintaining the milk salt balance. Simultaneously, little is known about the digestion of UF BM cheese. Therefore, this study aimed to characterize the impact of UF BM on cheese manufacture, its structure, and its behavior during in vitro digestion. A 2-fold UF concentrated BM was used for cheese manufacture (skim milk [SM] - control). Compositional, textural, and microstructural analyses of cheeses were first conducted. In a second step, the cheeses were fed into an in vitro TNO gastrointestinal digestion model (TIM-1) of the stomach and small intestine and protein and phospholipid (PL) bioaccessibility was studied. The results showed that UF BM cheese significantly differed from SM cheese regarding its composition, hardness (p < 0.05) and microstructure. However, in TIM-1, UF BM and SM cheeses showed similar digestion behavior as a percentage of protein and PL intake. Despite relatively more non-digested and non-absorbed PL in the ileum efflux of UF BM cheese, the initially higher PL concentration contributes to an enhanced nutritional value compared to SM cheese. To our knowledge, this study is the first to compare the bioaccessibility of proteins and PL from UF BM and SM cheeses.

Microbiological Assessment of Dairy Products Produced by Small-Scale Dairy Producers in Serbia.

The microbiological quality of dairy products from small-scale producers in Serbia was analysed. A total of 302 dairy products [raw (n = 111) and pasteurized milk cheeses (n = 79) and kajmak (n = 112)], were collected and tested for the presence of pathogens, Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella spp., and enumerated for Coagulase-positive staphylococci (CPS), Escherichia coli, and yeasts and moulds. None of the samples tested positive for Salmonella spp., while L. monocytogenes was recovered from one raw milk cheese and five kajmak samples. Raw milk cheese and kajmak also had higher levels of indicator microorganisms, namely E. coli and yeast and moulds. Molecular serotyping grouped L. monocytogenes isolates into serogroups 1 (1/2a and 3a) and 3 (1/2b, 3b, and 7). When exposed to eight antibiotics, L. monocytogenes isolates were mostly sensitive, with the exception of oxacillin and reduced susceptibility to clindamycin, penicillin G, and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, emphasizing the importance of continuous surveillance for antimicrobial resistance. Samples that tested positive for Listeria spp. also had higher loads of indicator microorganisms, namely E. coli and yeast and moulds, suggesting lapses in hygiene practices during production. Collectively, these data emphasize the need for improved food safety and hygiene practices among small-scale dairy producers. This is crucial to reduce the microbial contamination and improve both the quality and safety of dairy products in the Serbian market.

Raw milk cheeses from Beira Baixa, Portugal-A contributive study for the microbiological hygiene and safety assessment.

Due to specific bacterial microbiota, raw milk cheeses have appreciated sensory properties. However, they may pose a threat to consumer safety due to potential pathogens presence. This study evaluated the microbiological contamination of 98 raw milk cheeses from Beira Baixa, Portugal. Presence and enumeration of Coagulase Positive Staphylococci (CPS), Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., pathogenic Escherichia coli, and indicator microorganisms (non-pathogenic E. coli and Listeria spp.) was attained. E. coli antimicrobial resistance (AMR) was also evaluated. PCR and/or Whole genome sequencing (WGS) was used to characterize E. coli, Salmonella spp. and L. monocytogenes isolates. Sixteen cheeses (16.3%) were classified as Satisfactory, 59 (60.2%) as Borderline and 23 (23.5%) as Unsatisfactory/Potential Injurious to Health. L. monocytogenes, CPS > 104 cfu g-1, Extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC) and Salmonella spp. were detected in 4.1%, 6.1%, 3.1% and 1.0% of the samples, respectively. Listeria innocua (4.1%) and E. coli > 104 cfu g-1 (16.3%) were also detected. AMR E. coli was detected in 23/98 (23.5%) of the cheese samples, of which two were multidrug resistant. WGS identified genotypes already associated to human disease and Listeria spp. cluster analysis indicated that cheese contamination might be related with noncompliance with Good Hygiene Practices during cheese production.

Genome-based taxonomic identification and safety assessment of an Enterococcus strain isolated from a homemade dairy product.

The aim of this study was to explore the taxonomic identification and evaluate the safety of a bacterium, Enterococcus lactis IDCC 2105, isolated from homemade cheese in Korea, using whole genome sequence (WGS) analysis. It sought to identify the species level of this Enterococcus spp., assess its antibiotic resistance, and evaluate its virulence potential. WGS analysis confirmed the bacterial strain IDCC 2105 as E. lactis and identified genes responsible for resistance to erythromycin and clindamycin, specifically msrC, and eatAv, which are chromosomally located, indicating a minimal risk for horizontal gene transfer. The absence of plasmids in E. lactis IDCC 2105 further diminishes the likelihood of resistance gene dissemination. Additionally, our investigation into seven virulence factors, including hemolysis, platelet aggregation, biofilm formation, hyaluronidase, gelatinase, ammonia production, and ß-glucuronidase activity, revealed no detectable virulence traits. Although bioinformatic analysis suggested the presence of collagen adhesion genes acm and scm, these were not corroborated by phenotypic virulence assays. Based on these findings, E. lactis IDCC 2105 presents as a safe strain for potential applications, contributing valuable information on its taxonomy, antibiotic resistance profile, and lack of virulence factors, supporting its use in food products.

Assessment of some chemical residues in Egyptian raw milk and traditional cheese.

Background: The assessment of risks related to food safety is becoming a challenge in developing countries with its consequent health hazards. Chemical risk assessment in dairy products is important to maintain consumer health locally and internationally. Since milk and dairy products are essential foods for a wide range of customers, mostly children, patients, and pregnant women, it is very important to estimate the risks of some chemical residues, such as pesticides, some heavy metals, and aflatoxins. Aim: This work aims to determine the levels of chemical contamination in milk and traditional Egyptian cheese. Methods: Heavy metals were determined in samples by atomic absorption spectrometry. GC-mass spectrometry (MS)/MS and LC-MS/MS were also used for measuring pesticide residues. The Aflatoxin M1 was determined by enzyme-linked immune-sorbent assay. Results: Raw milk samples were tested and showed elevated concentrations of lead and cadmium, (46% and 4%, respectively). The heavy metals detected in the Egyptian cheese samples were variable depending on the type of cheese. Moreover, p.p.-DDE phenofose was present in 45% and 29% of raw milk and Ras cheese samples, respectively. For Aflatoxin M1, only 7% of milk samples and 2.9% of Ras cheese samples exceeded the acceptable limits. Conclusion: More surveying and risk assessment of chemical residues in milk and milk products are essential for controlling health risks to consumers.

Extent of κ-casein hydrolysis during renneting of bovine milk: A critical assessment of the analytical and estimation approaches.

Renneting is an enzymatic process that turns milk into curd which is then transformed into cheese. Rennet-induced coagulation of caseins (CNs) is the critical step during this process and the key is the primary hydrolysis of κ-CN's Phe105-Met106 bond by chymosin. This article comprehensively reviews the existing data on the extent/degree of κ-CN hydrolysis during renneting of bovine milk and critically evaluates its determination methods. The data show that under normal cheese-making conditions, milk gelation occurs at a degree of κ-CN hydrolysis <80%, which varies due to several factors including analytical and estimation approaches. The common approach involves isolating the macropeptides released, by precipitating whey proteins and residual CN in 1%-12% trichloroacetic acid (TCA), then assuming that the maximum amount obtained is 100% κ-CN hydrolysis. The drawback is that the estimated degree of κ-CN hydrolysis may be higher than the actual value as TCA partially precipitates the macropeptide fractions. Moreover, macropeptide isolation seems unnecessary based on current advances in chromatographic and electrophoretic techniques. The present work proposes a simple mass balance-based approach that will provide accurate estimates in future studies. The accuracy of measuring the degree of κ-CN hydrolysis has implications on the precision of the data in relation to its partitioning (% distribution between the curd and whey) which is essential for improving whey quality.

Cheese wastewater treatment through combined coagulation-flocculation and photo-Fenton-like advanced oxidation processes for reuse in irrigation: effect of operational parameters and phytotoxicity assessment.

The present study aims to investigate the efficiency of a combined cheese wastewater treatment approach involving coagulation with ferric chloride coupled with a photo-Fenton-like oxidation process for potential reuse in irrigation. Laboratory-scale tests were conducted, examining the effect of various operational parameters on the treatment process. Specifically, the effects of initial wastewater pH, coagulant dosage, decantation time for the coagulation process, and initial pH, chemical oxygen demand (COD) concentration, and Fe3+ and H2O2 dosages for photo-Fenton-like oxidation were studied. Coagulation was found effective at natural pH of 6 and showed a highest removal efficiency in terms of COD (50.6%), biological oxygen demand BOD5 (42.1%), turbidity (99.3%), and least sludge volume generation (11.8% v/v) for an optimum coagulant dose of 400 mg Fe3+ L-1 and 8 h of decantation time. Thereafter, photo-Fenton-like oxidation (Fe3+/H2O2/UVA-300W) of the pretreated cheese effluent enhanced the removal of COD, BOD5 and TOC to 91.2%, 91.4%, and 97.5%, respectively, using the optimized conditions (pH = 3; [Fe3+] = 5.0 × 10-4 mol L-1; [H2O2] = 0.2 mol L-1 and tirr = 24 h). This study also shows that the proposed combined process allowed a significant phytotoxicity reduction toward lentil seed germination. The obtained outcome was encouraging and supports the possible use of the treated cheese wastewater as an additional water source for agricultural irrigation.

Assessment of the performance of a symbiotic microalgal-bacterial granular sludge reactor for the removal of nitrogen and organic carbon from dairy wastewater.

Cheese whey (CW) is a nutrient deficient dairy effluent, which requires external nutrient supplementation for aerobic treatment. CW, supplemented with ammonia, can be treated using aerobic granular sludge (AGS) in a sequencing batch reactor (SBR). AGS are aggregates of microbial origin that do not coagulate under reduced hydrodynamic shear and settle significantly faster than activated sludge flocs. However, granular instability, slow granulation start-up, high energy consumption and CO2 emission have been reported as the main limitations in bacterial AGS-SBR. Algal-bacterial granular systems have shown be an innovative alternative to improve these limitations. Unfortunately, algal-bacterial granular systems for the treatment of wastewaters with higher organic loads such as CW have been poorly studied. In this study, an algal-bacterial granular system implemented in a SBR (SBRAB) for the aerobic treatment of ammonia-supplemented CW wastewaters was investigated and compared with a bacterial granular reactor (SBRB). Mass balances were used to estimate carbon and nitrogen (N) assimilation, nitrification and denitrification in both set-ups. SBRB exhibited COD and ammonia removal of 100% and 94% respectively, high nitrification (89%) and simultaneous nitrification-denitrification (SND) of 23% leading to an inorganic N removal of 30%. The efficient algal-bacterial symbiosis in granular systems completely removed COD and ammonia (100%) present in the dairy wastewater. SBRAB microalgae growth could reduce about 20% of the CO2 emissions produced by bacterial oxidation of organic compounds according to estimates based on synthesis reactions of bacterial and algal biomass, in which the amount of assimilated N determined by mass balance was taken into account. A lower nitrification (75%) and minor loss of N by denitrifying activity (<5% Ng, SND 2%) was also encountered in SBRAB as a result of its higher biomass production, which could be used for the generation of value-added products such as biofertilizers and biostimulants.

In vitro assessment of biofunctional properties of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum strain Jb21-11 and the characterization of its exopolysaccharide.

ABSTACT: The microbiota of traditional food provides a rich reservoir of biodiversity to find new strains with interesting features for novel functional food formulation. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the biofunctional potential of the lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strain Jb21-11 isolated from Jben, a traditional Algerian fresh cheese. This isolate was selected out of a collection of 154 LAB based on its exopolysaccharide (EPS) phenotype and was preliminarily identified by polyphasic characterization as Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (previously known as Lactobacillus plantarum) and its biofunctional properties were then assessed in vitro. The tested strain demonstrated good resistance to gastric juice, acidity around pH 2, and 2% (v/v) bile salts, which are important characteristics for potential biofunctional LAB candidates. It also showed a good production of ropy EPS with 674 mg/L on MRS medium. However, this ability appears to compromise the adhesion of the strain to Caco-2 cells (less than 1%), which according to our results, seems not to be related to autoaggregation and hydrophobicity (44.88 ± 0.028% and 16.59 ± 0.012%). Furthermore, promising antimicrobial activity against three pathogenic bacteria (Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella) was detected probably due to antimicrobial metabolites excreted during fermentation process into the medium. Moreover, the strain L. plantarum Jb21-11 displayed a therapeutic functionality with both anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory action using RAW 264.7 cells. The chemical features of the novel ropy Jb21-11-EPS were also investigated revealing the presence of three monosaccharides, namely, mannose, galactose, and glucose, with a molar ratio of 5.42:1.00:4.52 linked together by α- and ß-glycosidic bonds, presenting a relatively high molecular weight of 1.08 × 105 Da of interest for a texturing potential. Therefore, the new producing EPS strain Jb21-11 is a promising candidate for use as an adjunct culture for improving the texture of functional food.

Dried Herbs as an Easy-to-Use and Cost-Effective Alternative to Essential Oils to Extend the Shelf Life of Sheep Lump Cheese.

The objective of this research was to assess the effectiveness of three specific dried herbs (rosemary, thyme, and oregano) in combating microbial spoilage in sheep lump cheese. This was achieved by comparing them with a control group and cheeses treated with corresponding 1% essential oils (Rosmarinus officinalis, Origanum vulgare, Thymus vulgaris). All cheese samples were vacuum-sealed and stored at 4 °C for 15 days. Analysis of total viable counts of viable bacteria (TVC), coliform bacteria (CB), lactic acid bacteria (LAB), and microscopic filamentous fungi (MFF) was conducted on days 0, 5, 10, and 15. The results revealed that, at the end of the storage period, dried oregano-treated samples exhibited the lowest TVC count (5.80 log CFU/g), while dried rosemary-treated samples showed the lowest CB count (3.27 log CFU/g). Moreover, the lowest MFF count (2.40 log CFU/g) was observed in oregano essential oil-treated samples. Additionally, dried oregano-treated samples displayed the highest LAB count (4.49 log CFU/g) at the experiment's conclusion. Furthermore, microorganism identification from sheep cheese was performed using MALDI-TOF MS Biotyper technology, revealing that the most frequently isolated bacteria were Citrobacter braakii and Hafnia alvei (Enterobacteriaceae family), along with Lacticaseibacillus paracasei (Lactobacillaceae family). In summary, all the natural substances examined exhibited inhibitory effects against the studied microorganisms, with oregano essential oil and dried oregano demonstrating the strongest inhibitory effects. This supports their potential use as cost-effective natural preservatives to extend the shelf life of sheep lump cheese.

Assessment of the Microbiological Safety and Hygiene of Raw and Thermally Treated Milk Cheeses Marketed in Central Italy between 2013 and 2020.

A profile of the microbial safety and hygiene of cheese in central Italy was defined based on an analysis of 1373 cheeses sampled under the Italian National Control Plan for Food Safety spanning the years 2013 to 2020 and tested according to Commission Regulation (EC) No. 2073/2005 (as amended). A total of 97.4% of cheese samples were assessed as being satisfactory for food safety criteria and 80.5% for process hygiene criteria. Staphylococcal enterotoxin was found in 2/414 samples, while Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes were detected in 15 samples out of 373 and 437, respectively. Escherichia coli and coagulase-positive staphylococci counts were found unsatisfactory in 12/61 and 17/88 cheese samples, respectively. The impact of milking species, milk thermal treatment, and cheese hardness category was considered. A statistically significant association (p < 0.05) was found between milk thermal treatment and the prevalence of coagulase-positive staphylococci and Listeria monocytogenes and between hardness and unsatisfactory levels of Escherichia coli. The data depict a contained public health risk associated with these products and confirm, at the same time, the importance of strict compliance with good hygiene practices during milk and cheese production. These results can assist in bolstering risk analysis and providing insights for food safety decision making.

A Critical Review of Risk Assessment Models for Listeria monocytogenes in Dairy Products.

A review of the published quantitative risk assessment (QRA) models of L. monocytogenes in dairy products was undertaken in order to identify and appraise the relative effectiveness of control measures and intervention strategies implemented at primary production, processing, retail, and consumer practices. A systematic literature search retrieved 18 QRA models, most of them (9) investigated raw and pasteurized milk cheeses, with the majority covering long supply chains (4 farm-to-table and 3 processing-to-table scopes). On-farm contamination sources, either from shedding animals or from the broad environment, have been demonstrated by different QRA models to impact the risk of listeriosis, in particular for raw milk cheeses. Through scenarios and sensitivity analysis, QRA models demonstrated the importance of the modeled growth rate and lag phase duration and showed that the risk contribution of consumers' practices is greater than in retail conditions. Storage temperature was proven to be more determinant of the final risk than storage time. Despite the pathogen's known ability to reside in damp spots or niches, re-contamination and/or cross-contamination were modeled in only two QRA studies. Future QRA models in dairy products should entail the full farm-to-table scope, should represent cross-contamination and the use of novel technologies, and should estimate L. monocytogenes growth more accurately by means of better-informed kinetic parameters and realistic time-temperature trajectories.

Process modeling, environmental and economic sustainability of the valorization of whey and eucalyptus residues for resveratrol biosynthesis.

Biomass is one of the renewable resources with the greatest potential, not only because of the possibility of energy recovery but also because of its content in components of interest. In this context, the regions of Galicia and Portugal have large areas of land dedicated to forestry, agriculture and livestock, and the large amount of waste generated represents a cost for the producer. The importance of these facts has aroused great interest in society to focus its interest on improving the current situation while seeking a benefit, both environmental and economic, from existing resources. That is why the integration of biotechnological processes and biorefinery for their valorization are considered key aspects in the way of producing bioproducts and bioenergy. This research article proposes a process for producing resveratrol from whey from the dairy industry and eucalyptus residues from forestry exploitation. In order to evaluate its suitability, a techno-economic analysis and an environmental assessment have been carried out using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology. The results obtained show the potential of these scenarios both from the economic point of view, by obtaining a minimum sale price of resveratrol to ensure the viability of the process below the market average, and from the environmental point of view, being eucalyptus residues those that result in a lower contribution to the environment per unit of resveratrol produced. Future research should focus on increasing the throughput of the production process to increase its profitability and on reducing energy requirements throughout the process, as these have been the main critical points identified. In addition, following the sensitivity assessment, it has been concluded that opting for renewable energy is the most sustainable option.

Circular Economy in Mountain Value Chains: The Case of Three PDO Cheeses.

The circular economy (CE) has shown promise for achieving several of the UN's Sustainable Development Goals, replacing the linear system and reducing negative impacts on the environment. This research aims to assess the effective adoption of CE principles in three cheeses with geographical indication (GI) through an analysis of the practices identified in their respective value chains. Qualitative interviews show the persistence of historical practices that preserve the heritage behind the product, maintain autonomy in relation to external inputs and save energy or make intelligent use of by-products. Radical adoption of CE principles requires innovation to reduce the use of new inputs and greenhouse gas emissions. GI food products are generally not constrained by standards beyond those set by law, but their specifications can be modified, while respecting practices consistent with the link to the terroir. However, the remoteness of small businesses in deep rural areas, far from research centers, is slowing down the transfer of knowledge and the adoption of the latest technologies, particularly in mountainous areas. More participatory research and innovative initiatives are needed to ensure the transition to a circular economy for traditional mountain products, which are strongly linked to local culinary traditions and cultural identity.

Assessment of probiotic properties of lactic acid bacteria isolated from an artisanal Colombian cheese.

Lactic Acid Bacteria play an important role in the milk fermentation processes of traditional cheeses and have become an important target for the development of novel cheese cultures because of their ability to confer health benefits. This study aimed to evaluate the probiotic potential of 12 Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) strains previously isolated and molecularly identified from an artisanal Colombian Double-Cream Cheese. Probiotic properties, including safety (hemolysis and sensibility to antibiotics), pH and bile salt tolerance, auto-aggregation, cell surface hydrophobicity, antibacterial activity, and exopolysaccharide production, were examined. None of the strains were hemolytic, and Pediococcus (16, 18) and Lactobacillus (28, 29) were found to be sensitive to all antibiotics. Moreover, all the strains tolerated pH (3.0, 6.5 and 8.0) and bile salt conditions (0.3, 0.6 and 1.0 % w/v). Pediococcus pentosaceus (16), Leuconostoc citreum (17), Pediococcus acidilactici (18), Enterococcus faecium (21,22), Enterococcus faecalis (24) and Limosilactobacillus fermentum (29) exhibited medium autoaggregation and affinity to chloroform. Six of the strains exhibited a ropy exopolysaccharide phenotype. Antibacterial activity against foodborne pathogens, Salmonella Typhimurium ATCC 14028, Listeria monocytogenes ATCC 19111, Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, was found to be strain dependent, with the strains 16, 18, 21, 26, 28 and 29 presenting a higher inhibition (>4 mm) against all of them. According to Principal Component Analysis, P. pentosaceus (16), Leu. mesenteroides (26), L. casei (28), L. fermentum (29), and E. faecium (21) showed strong probiotic properties. Our findings suggest that five strains out of the 12 sampled strains are potential probiotics that could be used in the processing of traditional dairy products on an industrial scale to improve their quality.

Integrated production of hydrogen and methane in a dairy biorefinery using anaerobic digestion: Scale-up, economic and risk analyses.

Anaerobic digestion has emerged as the most appealing waste management strategy in biorefineries. Particularly, recent studies have highlighted the energy advantages of waste co-digestion in industrial biorefineries and the use of two-stage systems. However, there are some concerns about moving the system from laboratory testing to industrial scale. One of them is the high level of investment that is required. Therefore, this study carried out a techno-economic analysis (scale-up and energy production, economic and risk analysis, and factorial design) to assess the feasibility of single- and two-stage systems in the treatment of cheese whey and glycerin for the production of hydrogen and methane. Scenarios (S1 to S9) considered thermophilic and mesophilic single and two-stage systems with different applied organic loading rates (OLRA). The analyses of scale-up and energy production revealed that S3 (a thermophilic single-stage system operated at high OLRA 17.3 kg-COD.m-3.d-1) and S9 (a thermophilic-mesophilic two-stage system operated at high OLRA 134.8 kg-COD.m-3.d-1 and 20.5 kg-COD.m-3.d-1, respectively) were more compact and required lower initial investment compared to other scenarios. The risk analysis performed by a Monte Carlo simulation showed low investment risks (10 and 11%) for S3 and S9, respectively, being the electricity sales price, the key determining factor to define whether the project in the baseline scenario will result in profit or loss. Lastly, the factorial design revealed that while the net present value (NPV) is positively impacted by rising inflation and electricity sales price, it is negatively impacted by rising capitalization rate. Such assessments assist in making decisions regarding which system can be fully implemented, the best market circumstances for the investment, and how market changes may favorably or unfavorably affect the NPV and the internal rate of return (IRR).

A national systematic literature review for aflatoxin M1 in commonly consumed cheese brands in Iran: Human health risk assessment by Monte Carlo simulation.

Cheese is popular in Iran because of its high nutritional value; therefore, it is necessary to control this product regarding health risk factors, particularly aflatoxin M1 (AFM1). This research reviewed AFM1 in various varieties of cheese in Iran to assess the potential health risks associated with consuming these products for different age groups. In this regard, all accessible papers from different databases were screened between June 27, 2000 and October 10, 2022 b y systematic research and then considering the selection criteria of the studies; finally, 22 articles were selected for the current review. The amount and prevalence of AFM1 were calculated and separated based on the cheese variety, and the sampling location; health risk assessment (HRA), statistical, uncertainty, and sensitivity analysis for AFM1 of cheese for different age groups were performed. The study results for 2143 samples showed that the overall average AFM1 for cheese is 160 ± 175 ng/kg, below the European Commission (EC) regulation (250 ng/kg). AFM1 contaminated 72.42% of all cheese samples, and 13% of these contaminated samples had a higher AFM1 than the EC regulation. Cheese varieties were ranked based on average levels of AFM1 as white pasteurized > traditional > creamy > probiotic > Lighvan, and this ranking was obtained based on sampling locations as market > dairy factories > livestock farms. Based on the HRAs, from the perspective of the liver cancer risk (LCR), the margin of exposure (MOE), and the hazard index (HI) approach, it can be concluded that cheese produced in Iran, in terms of AFM1, particularly for children, poses serious health risks. Accordingly, it is imperative to carefully consider implementing suitable management methods to inhibit the growth of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in livestock fodder, and training in sanitary production and processing of dairy products according to world standards is suggested for industrial and traditional cheese producers across Iran.

Assessment of cheese frauds, and relevant detection methods: A systematic review.

Dairy products are widely consumed in the world due to their nutritional and functional characteristics. This group of food products are consumed by all age groups due to their health-giving properties. One of these products is cheese which has a high price compared to other dairy products. Because of this, it can be prone to fraud all over the world. Fraud in food products threatens the world's food safety and can cause serious damage to human health. There are many concerns among food authorities in the world about the fraud of food products. FDA, WHO, and the European Commission provide different legislations and definitions for fraud. The purpose of this review is to identify the most susceptible cheese type for fraud and effective methods for evaluating fraud in all types of cheeses. For this, we examined the Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and ScienceDirect databases. Mozzarella cheese had the largest share among all cheeses in terms of adulteration due to its many uses. Also, the methods used to evaluate different types of cheese frauds were PCR, Spectrometry, stable isotope, image analysis, electrophoretic, ELISA, sensors, sensory analysis, near-infrared and NMR. The methods that were most used in detecting fraud were PCR and spectrometry methods. Also, the least used method was sensory evaluation.

Prevalence and concentration of aflatoxin M1 and ochratoxin A in cheese: a global systematic review and meta-analysis and probabilistic risk assessment.

Exposure to mycotoxins such as aflatoxins can endanger human health, especially infants and children. In this study, an attempt was made to retrieved studies related to the concentration of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and ochratoxin A (OTA). Search was performed in international databases such as Embase, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science for the period 1 January 2010 to 20 February 2023. Then, the pooled concentration in the defined subgroups was calculated using meta-analysis and the health risk assessment was conducted by margin of exposure (MOEs). Thirty-one scientific papers with 34 data reports (Sample size=2,277) were included in our study. The lowest and highest prevalence of AFM1 in cheese was related to El Salvador (12.18 %) and Serbia (100.00 %). The pooled prevalence of AFM1 was 49.85 %, 95 %CI (37.93-61.78 %). The lowest and highest prevalence of OTA in cheese was related to Türkiye (6.67 %) and Italy (44.21 %). The pooled prevalence of OTA was 35.64 %, 95 %CI (17.16-56.44 %). Health risk of AFM1 revealed that except Pakistan and Iran, MOE in the other countries was lower than 10,000 for adults and also except Pakistan, MOE for other countries was lower than 10,000 for children. Health risk of OTA revealed that except Greece, MOE in the other countries was higher than 10,000 for adults and also except Germany and Greece, MOE for other countries was higher than 10,000 for children. Therefore, it is recommended to conduct control plans to reduce the concentration of mycotoxins in cheese, especially AFM1.

Assessment of aflatoxin M1 enrichment factor in cheese produced with naturally contaminated milk.

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is a well-known carcinogenic compound that may contaminate milk and dairy products. Thus, with the regulation 1881/2006, the European Union established a concentration limit for AFM1 in milk and insisted on the importance of defining enrichment factors (EFs) for cheese. In 2019, the Italian Ministry of Health proposed four different EFs based on cheese's moisture content on a fat-free basis (MMFB) for bovine dairy products. This study aimed to define the EFs of cheese with different MFFB. The milk used for cheesemaking was naturally contaminated with different AFM1 concentrations. Results showed that all the EF average values from this study were lower than those of the Italian Ministry of Health. Hence, the current EFs might need to be reconsidered for a better categorization of AFM1 risk in cheese.