A cascade approach to sustainable agriculture: From mushroom mycelium to lettuce harvest.

Sustainable agriculture involves adopting best practices in food production to promote environmental and economic sustainability. Its implementation primarily aims to utilise organic residues to increase yield, diversify production, and reduce costs. In this context, the objective of this study was to investigate different substrates for Hypsizygus ulmarius production and, from its residual substrate, to develop formulations for lettuce seedling growth and subsequent greenhouse cultivation. For mushroom production, substrates were prepared from sawdust with the addition of wheat bran, rice bran, soybean meal, and calcite, resulting in four distinct substrate formulations. The spent mushroom substrate (SMS), obtained at the end of cultivation, was used for lettuce seedling production along with the commercial substrate Carolina Soil® and the soil conditioner BacSol®. The top five formulations were selected for transplanting in the greenhouse. Regarding mushroom production, substrates with higher carbon/nitrogen ratios, around 66: 1, resulted in higher yields. For seedling production, SMS showed lower efficiency compared to the commercial substrate Carolina Soil®, which also benefited from the addition of the soil conditioner BacSol®. However, after transplanting lettuce seedlings, the formulation containing SMS showed superior results in almost all evaluated parameters. Therefore, we concluded that despite the inefficiency of using H.ulmarius SMS for lettuce seedling production, it favours the establishment of seedlings in greenhouse cultivation environments.

A 19-year longitudinal assessment of gyromitrin-containing (Gyromitra spp.) mushroom poisonings in Michigan.

Mushroom poisonings are common in the United States. Gyromitrin (acetaldehyde N-methyl-N-formylhydrazone) is a clinically significant mycotoxin primarily associated with the lorchel (i.e. the false morel) Gyromitra esculenta. Resemblance between 'true and false morels' has resulted in misidentification of Gyromitra spp. as edible and sought after Morchella spp., resulting in toxicity. Despite literature evidence outlining toxic sequalae, Gyromitra spp. mushrooms are commonly consumed and prepared for culinary purposes. Classic clinical teachings emphasize significant neurotoxicity, including seizures, associated with ingestion of gyromitrin-containing mushrooms, stemming from gyromitrin's terminal metabolite monomethylhydrazine. We performed a longitudinal descriptive review of the clinical toxicity associated with ingestion of mushroom species known or suspected to contain gyromitrin in cases reported to the Michigan Poison & Drug Information Center between January 1, 2002, to December 31, 2020. Our 19-year descriptive case series of gyromitrin-containing mushroom ingestions reported to our Center demonstrated a preponderance of gastrointestinal signs and symptoms, including hepatotoxicity. Of 118 identified cases, 108 (91.5%) of the reported ingestions involved Gyromitra esculenta. The most frequent clinical findings associated with symptomatic ingestions (n = 83) were the aforementioned gastrointestinal symptoms (n = 62; 74.7%). Neurological symptoms were less frequent (n = 22, 26.5%) while hepatotoxicity occurred in fewer patients (n = 14; 16.9%). Of symptomatic patients, most were treated with symptomatic and supportive care (n = 58; 70%). Pyridoxine was used in a total of seven patients (n = 7; 8.4%) with either hepatotoxicity or neurotoxicity. Medical outcomes ranged from minor to major, with no reported deaths. Patient presentations (i.e. GI vs. neurotoxic symptoms) following ingestion of gyromitrin-containing mushrooms may be highly variable and multifactorial, owing to differences in dose ingested, geographical distribution, genetic variability of both patient and mushroom species, and species-specific differences in toxin composition. Future research warrants species-level identification of ingested gyromitrin-containing mushrooms and investigating the contribution of genetic polymorphisms to differences in clinical toxidromes.

Health or environment? Understanding which informative message is more effective in replacing red meat with mushroom-based alternatives.

Current concerns regarding the health and environmental consequences associated with excessive meat consumption have underscored the importance of guiding consumers towards more sustainable diets. Given this perspective, this study seeks to evaluate the effectiveness of tailored informative messages in shaping consumer behaviour, particularly within the framework of replacing meat with mushroom-based alternatives. Additionally, it explores the factors influencing informative message effectiveness. An experimental online survey was conducted on a sample of 951 Italian consumers. Specifically, the sample was divided into three groups, of which 309 individuals formed the control group, 311 participants received informative messages on the health risks associated with red meat consumption, and 331 participants received informative messages emphasizing the environmental damages linked to red meat consumption. In both treatments, there was support for mushroom-based alternatives. Analyses included subgroup assessments, tests to verify treatments effectiveness, along with OLS regression to pinpoint variables influencing message effectiveness. The results underscore a fair positive impact of the two informative messages (mean scores: 8.75 for health message; 7.01 for environmental message). Noteworthy psychosocial variables, including lifestyle patterns, nutritional perceptions, and ecological attitudes, emerged as determinants in shaping consumers' food choices. While health-related messages exhibit marked influence, the nuanced landscape of diverse drivers and barriers necessitates judicious communication strategies. These insights bear significance for policymakers, health professionals, and marketers, offering guidance for interventions that effectively influence consumer behaviour toward more sustainable and healthier food practices.

Black Trumpet [Craterellus cornucopioides (L.) Pers.]-Bioactive Properties and Prospects for Application in Medicine and Production of Health-Promoting Food.

Black trumpet (Craterellus cornucopioides) is a mushroom present in many countries but underestimated. The aim of this publication is to present the latest state of knowledge about the chemical composition and bioactivity of C. cornucopioides and the possibility of its application in food. According to researchers, black trumpet is very rich in nutritional compounds, including unsaturated fatty acids (mainly oleic and linoleic acids), ß-glucans, minerals, and vitamins as well as polyphenols and tannins. It also contains compounds influencing the sensory properties, like free amino acids and nucleotides as well as sugars and polyols, mainly mannitol. Many of the described components show high nutritional and bioactive properties. Therefore, C. cornucopioides shows antioxidant activity and immunostimulating, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects as well as antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and antihyperglycemic effects. This makes black trumpet, also called horn of plenty, a mushroom with great potential for use both in medicine and directly in food. So far, black trumpet is not widely used in food, especially processed food. There are only a few studies on the use of dried black trumpet in sausages, but there is great potential for its use in food.

An insight into the nutritional and medicinal value of edible mushrooms: A natural treasury for human health.

Edible mushrooms have been cherished worldwide because of their nutraceutical and medicinal properties. They are recognized as the new superfood for the future due to their low-calorie content, high-protein content, low lipid levels, low cholesterol levels, and abundance of essential vitamins. The fruiting body of edible mushrooms contains a plethora of primary and secondary metabolites. However, submerged cultivation is a more reliable and controlled way of production of mycelium biomass and many bioactive compounds. Several bioactive metabolites present in mushrooms possess a range of beneficial properties, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antiviral and anti-COVID-19 activities. Consumers have turned more intrigued in mushroom-containing products as the world needs to diversify its protein sources to meet the growing demand for protein. In this context, mushrooms are viewed as a promising source of bioactive chemicals that can be employed as an alternative to meat products. This review aims to summarise the most recent data regarding the beneficial health effects and the development of mushroom-based food products.

Levels and Health Risk Assessment of Inorganic Arsenic, Methylmercury, and Heavy Metals in Edible Mushrooms Collected from Online Supermarket in China.

Chromium (Cr), total arsenic (As), inorganic arsenic (iAs), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), methylmercury (MeHg), and lead (Pb) were analyzed in in Agaricus blazei, Tricholoma matsutake, Pholiota nameko, agrocybe aegirit, Boletus edulis, Auricularia auricula, and Lentinus edodes collected from online supermarket in China from 2015 to 2017. The order of mean concentrations for the five heavy metals in edible mushrooms was As > Cd > Cr > Pb > Hg. No positive correlation was found between total As and iAs, nor between total Hg and MeHg. The contents of iAs were at a low level except for A. blazei samples. The contents of MeHg were at a low level in all test mushroom samples. And Cr, Cd, and Pb pollution were common problems in the test mushroom samples. The comprehensive factor pollution index was between 0.569 (A. auricula) and 3.056 (B. edulis). The THQ values for the five heavy metals from P. nameko, A. auricula, A. aegirit, and L. edodes samples were less than 1. The hazard index (HI) values of A. blazei, T. matsutake, and B. edulis samples for adults and children were greater than 1, indicating significant health hazard to the adults and children consumers. The cancer risk (CR) values for iAs ranged from 3.82 × 10- 6 (T. matsutake) to 8.61 × 10- 5 (A. blazei), indicating no potential carcinogenic risk to the consumers. The order for carcinogenic risk of each edible mushroom species was A. blazei > L. edodes > P. nameko > A. aegirit > A. auricula > B. edulis > T. matsutake.

The feasibility of partial replacement of berseem hay by spent mushroom (Pleurotus osteratus) substrate in rabbit diets on growth performance, digestibility, caecum fermentation, and economic efficiency.

Nowadays, agricultural by-product disposal is a major concern. The mushroom by-products could be used as an alternative feed source in rabbit diets. Therefore, partial replacement of berseem hay (BH) with spent mushroom substrate (SMS) was conducted in four experimental groups as follows: 0, 20, 40, and 60% of SMS. Forty weaned New Zealand White (NZW) rabbits at 6th weeks of age with an initial body weight of 520.25 ± 70.01 g were fed the experimental diet for 8 weeks. The results showed that ash content and cell wall constituents in SMS were higher than in BH, while the other nutrient compounds in SMS were lower than in BH. Dietary SMS at a level of 60% increased the final body weight (p = 0.05) and feed conversion ratio (p ≤ 0.05). However, average daily gain and total feed intake were not affected by treatments. The replacement of SMS at levels of 40 and 60% significantly improved nutrient digestibility and total digestible nutrient value. SMS 60% decreased (p = 0.040) faecal N and improved (p = 0.006) retained nitrogen. The SMS replacement increased caecum length (p = 0.001), and full and empty caecum weight (p = 0.001 and 0.021, respectively) compared to the control. The SMS inclusion caused a decrease (p = 0.021 and 0.007) in the pH and NH3-N concentrations, respectively. Total VFA, acetic acid, butyric acid, and propionic acid proportions increased with the dietary inclusion of SMS in a level-dependent manner. Using SMS as a replacement for BH in growing rabbit diets reduced the total feed cost, and consequently improved net revenue, economic efficiency, and relative economic efficiency.

ß-Glucan extracts as high-value multifunctional ingredients for skin health: A review.

ß-Glucans, which are naturally present in cereals, yeast, and mushrooms, have gained attention as a potential natural source for functional foods and pharmaceuticals. Due to the availability of ß-glucans from several sources, different extraction methods can be employed to obtain high purity extracts that can be further modified to enhance their solubility or other biological properties. Apart from their known ability to interact with the immune system, ß-glucans possess specific properties that could benefit overall skin health and prevent age-related signs, including soothing and antioxidant activities. As a result, the use of ß-glucans to mitigate damage caused by environmental stressors or skin-related issues that accelerate skin aging or trigger chronic inflammation may represent a promising, natural, eco-friendly, and cost-effective approach to maintaining skin homeostasis balance. This review outlines ß-glucan extraction methodologies, molecular structure, functionalization approaches, and explores skin-related benefits of ß-glucans, along with an overview of related products in the market.

Spent substrate from mushroom cultivation: exploitation potential toward various applications and value-added products.

Spent mushroom substrate (SMS) is the residual biomass generated after harvesting the fruitbodies of edible/medicinal fungi. Disposal of SMS, the main by-product of the mushroom cultivation process, often leads to serious environmental problems and is financially demanding. Efficient recycling and valorization of SMS are crucial for the sustainable development of the mushroom industry in the frame of the circular economy principles. The physical properties and chemical composition of SMS are a solid fundament for developing several applications, and recent literature shows an increasing research interest in exploiting that inherent potential. This review provides a thorough outlook on SMS exploitation possibilities and discusses critically recent findings related to specific applications in plant and mushroom cultivation, animal husbandry, and recovery of enzymes and bioactive compounds.

Valorization of spent substrate is crucial for a sustainable mushroom industry.The review covers spent mushroom substrate (SMS) valorization for multiple uses.SMS composition and mushroom species are essential factors for its exploitation.SMS valorization forms an integral part of cascade use of plant biomass.

Mushroom-Related Ethnomycological, Ethnomedical, and Socio-Economic Practices in Nigeria.

Native mushrooms are valuable non-timber forest products used worldwide, although they are under-exploited in Africa. This study focused on evaluating ethnomycological practices in Nigeria. The study was based on structured questionnaires in three of Nigeria's six geopolitical regions. Findings revealed that mycophagy is not a gender-based activity (P ≤ 0.05) in all the sites assessed. There were no significant differences (P ≤ 0.05) between the sites evaluated, but the responses were quite different. Most interviewees (75.6%) ate mushrooms. Mushrooms were predominantly associated with delicious taste, exotic aroma, and flavor (37.0%), a meat substitute (37.0%), medicinal resources (20.3%). Among the principal medicinal mushrooms are Lentinus squarrosulus, Pleurotus tuber-regium, Ganoderma lucidum, Auricularia auricula-judae, and Agaricus campestris. Among the most important edible mushrooms are L. squarrosulus and Termitomyces titanicus, Russula meleagris, A. campestris, and A. auricula-judae. The main edible and medicinal dual-use mushrooms are L. squarrosulus, P. tuber-regium, Lactifluus inversus, Polyporus officinalis, and T. titanicus. Women and children (78.2%) are the major collectors/gatherers of mushrooms. The mushrooms are utilized to treat skin problems (21.5%), high blood pressure (12.3%), as blood tonic (9.2%), to treat fever and measles (13.8%), and diabetes (13.1%). Preservation practices include mainly direct sun-drying (48.7%) or washing and then sun-drying (27.8%). Mushrooms are consumed with 'fufu' (cereal-boiled cakes) (48.0%), and 'gari' (cassava-boiled cakes) (15.7%). Mushrooms are often made in soup (44.1%), cooked with meat (15.3%), or with vegetables (28.0%). Respondents were able to differentiate between toxic mushrooms and were familiar with some mushroom-related myths.

An Assessment of Mushroom Consumption on Cardiometabolic Disease Risk Factors and Morbidities in Humans: A Systematic Review.

Mushrooms, unique edible fungi, contain several essential nutrients and bioactive compounds which may positively influence cardiometabolic health. Despite a long history of consumption, the health benefits of mushrooms are not well documented. We conducted a systematic review to assess the effects of and associations between mushroom consumption and cardiometabolic disease (CMD)-related risk factors and morbidities/mortality. We identified 22 articles (11 experimental and 11 observational) from five databases meeting our inclusion criteria. Limited evidence from experimental research suggests mushroom consumption improves serum/plasma triglycerides and hs-CRP, but not other lipids, lipoproteins, measures of glucose control (fasting glucose and HbA1c), or blood pressure. Limited evidence from observational research (seven of 11 articles with a posteriori assessments) suggests no association between mushroom consumption and fasting blood total or LDL cholesterol, glucose, or morbidity/mortality from cardiovascular disease, coronary heart disease, or type 2 diabetes mellitus. Other CMD health outcomes were deemed either inconsistent (blood pressure, HDL cholesterol, and triglycerides) or insufficient (HbA1c/hyperglycemia, hs-CRP, cerebrovascular disease, and stroke). The majority of the articles vetted were rated "poor" using the NHLBI study quality assessment tool due to study methodology and/or poor reporting issues. While new, high-quality experimental and observational research is warranted, limited experimental findings suggest greater mushroom consumption lowers blood triglycerides and hs-CRP, indices of cardiometabolic health.

New insights into the inhibitory effect of phenol carboxylic acid antioxidants on mushroom tyrosinase by molecular dynamic studies and experimental assessment.

The inhibitory effects of ferulic and chlorogenic acids on tyrosinase activity were investigated through multi-spectroscopic and molecular docking techniques. Ferulic and chlorogenic acids, flavonoid compounds, demonstrated inhibitory monophenolase activities of tyrosinase. The inhibitor effects against monophenolase activity were in a reversible and competitive manner with ki value equal to 6.8 and 7.5 µM respectively. The affinity between tyrosinase and L-DOPA decreased when fatty acids were added to the solution. The multi-spectroscopic techniques like UV-vis, fluorescence, and isothermal calorimetry are employed to investigate changes. Intrinsic fluorescence quenching and conformational changes of tyrosinase by hydrophobic interaction were confirmed. Tyrosinase had two and three binding sites for ferulic and chlorogenic acids with a binding constant in the order of magnitude of -6.8 and -7.2 kcal/mol. In addition, the secondary structural changes with Circular dichroism (CD) analysis, secondary structure (DSSP), radius of gyration (Rg) and analysis of hydrogen bonds (H-bonds) confirmed. Ferulic acid effect can be observed obviously and also content of α-helix decreased. Thermodynamic parameters indicated that the interaction between enzyme and ferulic and chlorogenic acids followed a spontaneous reaction dynamic manner with ΔG = -14.78 kJ/mol and ΔG = -14.61 kJ/mol (298k). The findings highlighted the potential applications of ferulic acid and chlorogenic acids in food and drug industries as potent inhibitors of tyrosinase.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

In silico study Ferulic and Chlorogenic Acids was performed to check the binding profile against tyrosinase.Investigate the inhibitory It inhibited tyrosinase in a competitive manner.Ferulic and Chlorogenic fatty acids for prevention of medical hyperpigmentation, and it is a good candidate for cosmetic applications.

Activity Assay of Amylase and Xylanase Is Available for Quantitative Assessment of Strain Aging in Cultivated Culinary-Medicinal Morchella Mushrooms (Ascomycotina).

Strain aging has been mainly contributing to the "uncertainty" of Morchella farming. The situation calls for urgent quantitative assessment of strain aging in cultivated Morchella mushrooms. In this paper, systemic senescence of the productive strains of M. eximia, M. importuna, and M. sextelata was achieved through successive subculturing to provide subcultures with different degree of aging for further studies. Then the quantitative assessment of morel strain aging was conducted by activity assay of amylase and xylanase using dinitrosalicylic acid (DNS) method. The results suggested that both activity of amylase and xylanase decreased along with the rise of subculture times. Meanwhile, the correlation between xylanase activity and time of subculturing in the tested morel strains was higher than that of amylase assay. Consequently, assay of amylase and xylanase activity by DNS method can be used in the quantitative assessment of morel strain aging, and assay of xylanase activity is the better alternative. The work will improve the settlement of "uncertainty" in the morel industry and thus be beneficial for stable development of morel farming.

Optimization of laccase enzyme extraction from spent mushroom waste of Pleurotus florida through ANN-PSO modeling: An ecofriendly and economical approach.

The cardinal focus of this study is to optimize the best reaction conditions for maximizing laccase activity from spent mushroom waste (SMW) of Pleurotus florida. Optimization process parameters were studied by the modeling techniques, artificial neural networking (ANN) embedded in particle swarm optimization (PSO), and response surface model (RSM). The best topology of ANN-PSO architecture was obtained on 4-10-1. The R2, IOA, MSE, and MAE values of the ANN model were obtained as 0.98785, 0.9939, 0.0023, and 0.0251 while, that of the RSM model were obtained as 0.74290, 0.9210, 0.0244, and 0.1110 respectively. The higher values of R2, IOA, and lower values of MSE and MAE of the ANN-PSO model depict that ANN-PSO outperformed compared to RSM and also verified the effectiveness of the ANN-PSO model. The ANN-PSO model performance demonstrates the robustness of the technique in optimizing laccase activity in SMW of P. florida. The optimization results revealed that pH 4.5, time 3 h, solid: solution ratio 1:5, and ABTS concentration of 1 mM was optimal for achieving maximum laccase activity at temperature 30 °C. The enzymatic activity of crude laccase enzyme was obtained as 1.185 U ml-1 without loss of enzyme activity. Additionally, crude laccase enzyme was 1.74 fold partially purified, and 83.54% of the enzyme was yielded. Out of all the independent process variables, ABTS and pH had an influence on laccase activity. Therefore, we anticipate that the findings of this investigation will reduce the ambiguity in maximizing laccase activity and ease the screening process. This study also highlights the comparative cost evaluation of crude laccase enzyme extracted from P. florida and commercial enzymes. There is a great potential for the utilization of the laccase enzyme extracted from SMW and using it for the degradation of recalcitrant micropollutants. Thus, SMW promises a cost-effective and sustainable approach leading towards circular economy.

Mushroom Production in the Southern Cone of South America: Bioeconomy, Sustainable Development and Its Current Bloom.

A Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) based analysis is presented here for business development of the production of edible and medicinal mushrooms using agro-wastes in the Southern Cone of South America. This circular economy approach using edible and medicinal mushroom production on lignocellulosic residues is discussed by analysing both its advantages and drawbacks. Among its main benefits, it is notable that mushroom cultivation using lignocellulosic residues promotes innovation aimed at environmental sustainability, facilitating diversification of the labour supply and the transfer of science to the socio-cultural sphere, which also increases the availability of healthy foods. However, there are some bottlenecks in the process, such as the continuous supply chain of substrates for fungal growth, the lack of equipment and infrastructure for the implementation of cultivation systems in extreme habitats, as well as authorization requirements and other limitations related to a non-fungiphilic culture society. Therefore, this chapter tries to provide key tools for establishing sustainable guidelines for the procurement of local healthy food and other products derived from mushroom cultivation using agricultural residues in the region, which might bloom due to an SDGs-based circular economy approach.

Ugi Bis-Amide Derivatives as Tyrosinase Inhibitor; Synthesis, Biology Assessment, and in Silico Analysis.

Herein, a straightforward synthetic strategy mediated by Ugi reaction was developed to synthesize novel series of compounds as tyrosinase inhibitors. The structures of all compounds were confirmed by FT-IR, 1 H-NMR, 13 C-NMR, and CHNOS techniques. The tyrosinase inhibitory activities of all synthesized derivatives 5a-m were determined against mushroom tyrosinase and it was found that derivative 5c possesses the best inhibition with an IC50 value of 69.53±0.042 µM compared to the rest of the synthesized derivatives. Structure-activity relationships (SARs) showed that the presence of 4-MeO or 4-NO2 at the R2 position plays a key role in tyrosinase inhibitory activities. The enzyme kinetics studies showed that compound 5c is an noncompetitive inhibitor. For in silico study, the allosteric site detection was first applied to find the appropriate binding site and then molecular docking and molecular dynamic studies were performed to reveal the position and interactions of 5c as the most potent inhibitor within the tyrosinase active site. The results showed that 5c bind well with the proposed binding site and formed a stable complex with the target protein.

Assessment of nutrient contents and bio-functional activities of edible fungus bio-fortified with copper, lithium and zinc.

Bio-enrichment of edible mushrooms is an outstanding strategy to deliver essential nutrients to human. In this study, an edible fungus; Pleurotus pulmonarius was cultivated on spent mushroom substrate (SMS) supplemented with copper, lithium, and zinc. Proximate and mineral analysis of cultivated mushroom was determined using methods of AOAC. Antimicrobial activity of cultivated mushroom was assessed against microorganisms using agar well diffusion. Antioxidant property of mushroom was assessed against free radicals. Similar (p ≤ 0.05) protein contents of 18.93%, 18.80% and 17.90% were respectively obtained in P. pulmonarius biofortified with Cu + Li + Zn, Cu + Zn and Zn. Crude fibre in element fortified-mushroom ranged from 9.02 to 10.11%, while non-fortified mushroom was 8.66%. Copper content of P. pulmonarius fortified with Cu alone and Cu + Zn were 96.12 mg/100 g and 98.09 mg/100 g, respectively. Mushroom fortified with Zn has the highest zinc content of 520.15 mg/100 g. Mushroom fortified with Li and Li + Zn have a similar (p ≤ 0.05) Li content of 106.02 mg/100 g and 104.30 mg/100 g, respectively. Extract from mushroom-fortified with copper has the highest zone of inhibition (15.1 mm) against Klebsiella pneumoniae at 1.0 mg/ml. Mushroom fortified with Cu + Li + Zn and Li + Zn, respectively have similar (p ≤ 0.05) scavenging activities of 79.10 and 81.0% against DPPH. Mushroom fortified with Zn or Zn + Cu enhanced the growth of Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus plantarum. Antimicrobial, antioxidant and prebiotic activities of fortified-mushroom could be attributed to arrays of phytochemicals and bio-accumulated elements. Hence, bio-fortified mushrooms can be used as functional foods and as biopharmaceuticals to treat ailments associated with nutrient deficient.

ASSESSMENT OF DOSES FROM INGESTION OF RADIONUCLIDES 40 K, 137CS, 226RA AND 232TH IN EDIBLE COMMERCIAL MUSHROOMS FROM TAIWAN.

This study analyzed activity concentration and annual effective dose of radionuclides 40K, 137Cs, 226Ra and 232Th of 44 mushrooms collected from local markets in Taiwan. The 40K activity concentrations were 1570 ± 150 Bq/kg-dw (Agaricus bisporus) > 1084 ± 183 Bq/kg-dw (Flammulina velutipe) > 736 ± 150 Bq/kg-dw (Lentinula edodes). The activity concentrations of 226Ra were 5.04 ± 2.43, 4.00 ± 2.40 and 3.43 ± 2.69 Bq/kg-dw, and 232Th were 3.96 ± 2.18, 3.86 ± 1.43 and 2.90 ± 1.99 Bq/kg-dw for F. velutipe, L. edodes and A. bisporus, respectively. In seven of the 44 samples, 137Cs activity concentrations were detected, and the samples had an average of 1.55 ± 1.75 Bq/kg-dw. The total annual effective dose ranged from 0.90 to 3.50 µSv/y, with an average of 1.94 ± 0.62 µSv/y at an ingestion rate of 0.235 kg-dw/y.

Epidemiology and Economic Burden of an Outbreak of Cyclopeptide-Containing Mushroom Poisoning in the West of Iran.

Little evidence is available on the epidemiological and economical dimensions of certain foodborne diseases such as wild mushroom poisoning. This study aimed to investigate the epidemiology and estimate the costs of poisoning with cyclopeptide-containing mushrooms in Kermanshah province in 2018. In this study, poisoning was investigated in different subgroups. The cost of illness method with a bottom-up approach was used to estimate the poisoning costs. Both direct and indirect costs of the poisoning were included in the analysis. The perspective of the study was society. Required data were obtained from the medical records of Imam Khomeini hospital and completed through a line survey with the patients. Two hundred eighty-three patients were poisoned in Kermanshah due to poisoning with cyclopeptide-containing mushrooms. Of 283 patients, 143 (50.53%) were men and 59.01% of patients were rural residents. About 43% of admissions were out-patient cases and ~40% of patients were hospitalized within 1-3 days. Also, eight patients were pronounced dead in the area. The total cost of poisoning with cyclopeptide-containing mushrooms in Kermanshah province was $ 1,259,349.26. Of that, $ 69,281.65 was related to direct medical costs and $ 10,727.23 was direct non-medical costs. The indirect costs of death were estimated to be $ 1,125,829.7. The current study revealed that there is a significant financial burden due to cyclopeptide-containing mushrooms on patients, the health system, and society as a whole. Further studies are recommended to clarify the epidemiological and economic burden of foodborne illnesses related to wild mushroom poisonings. Sharing the outputs with health authorities, and informing the general public are warranted to reduce the burden of such diseases.