Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a Useful and Low-Cost Tool for Molecular Sexing Psittaciformes under Human Care: An Example of a Collaborative Approach in Mexico.

Sex determination in monomorphic birds is a precondition for captive breeding programs and management and conservation strategies for threatened species. Most species of the order Psittaciformes often present complications since these birds lack external sexual phenotypic traits, making it impossible to differentiate males and females. In the present study, we used molecular techniques to determine the sex of 31 individuals belonging to nine species of the order Psittaciformes kept under human care at the Akumal Monkey Sanctuary & Rescued Animals in Quintana Roo, Mexico. This is a useful and low-cost methodology based on the analysis of the conserved region of the CHD1 gene, which was amplified by PCR with two sets of primers: P8/P2 and 2550F/2718 R. All individuals were successfully sexed with the first set of primers, while only 28 out of 31 samples (90%) could be amplified with the second set. Out of the 31 individuals analyzed, fifteen are female, and seventeen are male. This information represents a handy tool for adequately managing birds under human care, resulting in their reproduction and eventual reintegration into their natural habitat.

A Nationwide Study of the Prevalence and Initial Management of Atypical Genitalia in the Newborn in Scotland.

Provision of optimum healthcare for infants with atypical genitalia requires a clear understanding of the occurrence of this condition. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of atypical genitalia and its initial management. A prospective, electronic survey of clinicians within managed clinical networks in Scotland was undertaken between 2013 and 2019. Notification from clinicians was sought for term neonates requiring specialist input for atypical genitalia. Additional information was also sought from the 4 regional genetics laboratories that provided details for neonates who had an urgent karyotype performed for atypical genitalia or sex determination. In total, the study identified 171 term infants who required some investigation for atypical genitalia in the neonatal period, providing a birth prevalence of 1:1,881 term births. Of the 171 infants, 97 (57%) had specialist input over the first 3 months of life, providing a birth prevalence of 1:3,318 term births that received specialist input for atypical genitalia. A total of 92 of these 97 cases had complete 3-month follow-up data, 62 (67%) presented within 24 h of birth, and age at presentation ranged from birth to 28 days. Age at sex assignment ranged from birth to 14 days, and in 63 cases (68%), sex assignment occurred at birth. Thus, the birth prevalence of a case of atypical genitalia where sex assignment was reported to be delayed beyond birth was estimated at 1:11,097 births. In 1 case sex was re-assigned at 3 months. Atypical genitalia requiring specialist input within the first month of life are rare in term newborns, and in only a third of these cases, sex assignment is delayed beyond birth. This study provides new clinical benchmarks for comparing and improving the delivery of care in centres that manage these conditions.

Understanding mosquito host-choice behaviour: a new and low-cost method of identifying the sex of human hosts from mosquito blood meals.

BACKGROUND: Mosquito-borne diseases are a global health problem, causing hundreds of thousands of deaths per year. Pathogens are transmitted by mosquitoes feeding on the blood of an infected host and then feeding on a new host. Monitoring mosquito host-choice behaviour can help in many aspects of vector-borne disease control. Currently, it is possible to determine the host species and an individual human host from the blood meal of a mosquito by using genotyping to match the blood profile of local inhabitants. Epidemiological models generally assume that mosquito biting behaviour is random; however, numerous studies have shown that certain characteristics, e.g. genetic makeup and skin microbiota, make some individuals more attractive to mosquitoes than others. Analysing blood meals and illuminating host-choice behaviour will help re-evaluate and optimise disease transmission models. METHODS: We describe a new blood meal assay that identifies the sex of the person that a mosquito has bitten. The amelogenin locus (AMEL), a sex marker located on both X and Y chromosomes, was amplified by polymerase chain reaction in DNA extracted from blood-fed Aedes aegypti and Anopheles coluzzii. RESULTS: AMEL could be successfully amplified up to 24 h after a blood meal in 100% of An. coluzzii and 96.6% of Ae. aegypti, revealing the sex of humans that were fed on by individual mosquitoes. CONCLUSIONS: The method described here, developed using mosquitoes fed on volunteers, can be applied to field-caught mosquitoes to determine the host species and the biological sex of human hosts on which they have blood fed. Two important vector species were tested successfully in our laboratory experiments, demonstrating the potential of this technique to improve epidemiological models of vector-borne diseases. This viable and low-cost approach has the capacity to improve our understanding of vector-borne disease transmission, specifically gender differences in exposure and attractiveness to mosquitoes. The data gathered from field studies using our method can be used to shape new transmission models and aid in the implementation of more effective and targeted vector control strategies by enabling a better understanding of the drivers of vector-host interactions.

Evaluation of the efficiency of TaqMan duplex real-time PCR assay for non-invasive pre-natal assessment of foetal sex in equine.

Accurate diagnosis of foetal sex in pregnant mare is helpful for many breeders, both for private or commercial purposes. In this study, in order to pre-natal foetal sexing in equine, we used TaqMan duplex real-time PCR to detect the specific regions of SRY and TSPY genes on extracted cell-free foetal DNA from maternal blood. Peripheral blood samples from 50 pregnant Arabian mares with singleton foetuses were collected. Cell-free foetal DNA was extracted from maternal plasma, and duplex real-time PCR assays were performed with TaqMan probes and primers. Amplification of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) gene was used as control of DNA extraction procedure. From the 50 sampled mares, 28 cases had female and 22 mares had male foetuses. The final results for 46 samples were conclusive, and from them, 43 cases were predicted correctly. Sensitivity, specificity and accuracy of the test were 90.48%, 96% and 93.48%, respectively. In conclusion, a TaqMan duplex real-time PCR was set up to pre-natal detection of foetal sex in equine. The method was fast and decreased the false-positive and false-negative results. The technique can be used as a routine procedure in farms by collecting only a blood sample.

Assessment of Fetal Rhesus D and Gender with Cell-Free DNA and Exosomes from Maternal Blood.

The detection of fetal cell-free DNA (cfDNA) from maternal plasma has enabled the development of essential techniques in prenatal diagnosis during recent years. Extracellular vesicles including exosomes were determined to carry fetal DNA fragments. Considering the known difficulties during isolation and stability of cfDNA, exosomes might provide a new opportunity for prenatal diagnosis and screening. In this study, comparison of cfDNA and exosome DNA (exoDNA) for predicting the fetal sex and Rhesus D (RHD) genotype was performed by using real-time polymerase chain reaction with simultaneous amplification of sequences of SRY and RHD genes. Fetal sex and RHD were determined in 100 and 81 RHD-negative pregnant women with cfDNA and exoDNA, respectively. The gestation ages of pregnant women were between 9 and 40 weeks. The results were compared with the neonatal phenotype for gender and a serological test for RHD. The cfDNA revealed 95.75% sensitivity and 100% specificity in RHD positivity and 100% sensitivity and 95.45% specificity in SRY positivity. Cohen's agreement coefficient in the Kappa test ranged from 0.8 to 1.0 (P < 0.00001). Although the exoDNA failed to amplify 16 cases, the remaining 65 cases revealed a true estimate for both fetal RHD and SRY genes with 100% sensitivity and specificity. Successful application of exoDNA and cfDNA with real-time PCR for fetal genotyping enables this technique to be applied in the assessment of fetal RHD and gender during pregnancy, allowing initiation of early treatment methods and avoiding unnecessary interventions and cost.

Sex determination by osteometric assessment of the mastoid process using Cone Beam Computed Tomography / Determinação do sexo em uma população Iraniana por avaliação osteométrica do processo mastóide em imagens de TCFC

Objective: Sex determination is one of the most important parameters to identify in forensic science. Because the mastoid process is the most resistant to damage due to its position in the skull base, it can be used for sex determination. The purpose of this study was to measure the dimensions and convexity and internal angles of the mastoid process to present a model of sex determination in Iranian population. Material and methods: This study was performed on three-dimensional images of 190 Cone Beam Computed Tomography (CBCT) of 105 women and 85 men. On each CBCT the distance between the porion and the mastoid (PM), mastoid length (ML), the distance between the mastoidale and the mastoid incision (M-I), the mastoid height (MH), the mastoid width (MW), intermastoidale distance (IMD) the lateral surfaces of the left and right mastoids (IMLSD) and the Mastoid medial convergence angle (MMCA) was measured on both the right and the left. The data were analyzed by descriptive statistics, t-test, and discriminant function analysis. Results: Significant differences were found for all variables except MMCA and MF in both sex. All measured variables except MW were greater for men than women. The discriminant model achieved a total accuracy of 93.7%. Among the measured factors IMD and IMSLD had the most influence on sex determination. Conclusion: Measuring the dimensions of the mastoid process is a very good method for sex determination with high accuracy of 90% (AU)

Objetivo: A determinação do sexo é um dos parâmetros mais importantes para identificação na ciência forense. Por ser o processo mastóide resistente a danos, devido a sua posição na base do crânio, este poderia ser usado na determinação do sexo. O objetivo deste estudo foi mensurar as dimensões, convexidade e ângulos internos do processo mastóide para apresentar um modelo de determinação do sexo em uma população Iraniana. Material e métodos: Este estudo foi realizado em 190 imagens de tomografia computadorizada de feixe cônico (TCFC), sendo 105 mulheres e 85 homens. Em cada TCFC foram realizadas medidas no processo mastóide em comprimento (ML), altura (MH), largura (MW) em ambos os lados direito e esquerdo, também foi medida a distância entre o Pórion e o processo mastóide (PM), distância até incisura mastoidea (M-I), distância entre as superfícies mediais (IMD) distância entre as superfícies laterais dos processos direito e esquerdo (IMLSD) e o ângulo de convergência medial (MMCA). Os dados foram analisados por estatística descritiva, teste t e análise de função discriminante. Resultados: Diferenças significativas foram encontradas para todas as variáveis, exceto MMCA e MF em ambos os sexos. Todas as variáveis medidas, exceto MW, foram maiores para os homens do que para as mulheres. O modelo de análise de função discriminante alcançou uma precisão total de 93,7%. Entre os fatores medidos, o IMD e o IMSLD tiveram a maior influência na determinação do sexo. Conclusão: Podemos concluir que as dimensões do processo mastóide constituem um método para determinação do sexo, em população Iraniana, com precisão de 90% (AU)

Kinship and social organization in Copper Age Europe. A cross-disciplinary analysis of archaeology, DNA, isotopes, and anthropology from two Bell Beaker cemeteries.

We present a high-resolution cross-disciplinary analysis of kinship structure and social institutions in two Late Copper Age Bell Beaker culture cemeteries of South Germany containing 24 and 18 burials, of which 34 provided genetic information. By combining archaeological, anthropological, genetic and isotopic evidence we are able to document the internal kinship and residency structure of the cemeteries and the socially organizing principles of these local communities. The buried individuals represent four to six generations of two family groups, one nuclear family at the Alburg cemetery, and one seemingly more extended at Irlbach. While likely monogamous, they practiced exogamy, as six out of eight non-locals are women. Maternal genetic diversity is high with 23 different mitochondrial haplotypes from 34 individuals, whereas all males belong to one single Y-chromosome haplogroup without any detectable contribution from Y-chromosomes typical of the farmers who had been the sole inhabitants of the region hundreds of years before. This provides evidence for the society being patrilocal, perhaps as a way of protecting property among the male line, while in-marriage from many different places secured social and political networks and prevented inbreeding. We also find evidence that the communities practiced selection for which of their children (aged 0-14 years) received a proper burial, as buried juveniles were in all but one case boys, suggesting the priority of young males in the cemeteries. This is plausibly linked to the exchange of foster children as part of an expansionist kinship system which is well attested from later Indo-European-speaking cultural groups.

A meta-analytic review for the patella sexual dimorphism assessment / Una revisión meta-analítica para la evaluación del dimorfismo sexual de la patela

Sexual dimorphism is one of the most important ways to identify bone remains in mass disasters. Many of them have been used for this purpose; mainly skull, pelvis and long bones. However, only a few studies using the patella have been done and, to our knowledge, there are no assessments of previous results in the literature. Meta-analysis provides a useful strong tool to test, in a systematic way, the most relevant information about a given research field. The aim of this study is to apply the meta-analytic technique to assess the major studies concerning sexual dimorphism in the patella by measuring classical metric traits: maximum height and maximum width, with different techniques, such as caliper, radiography, tomography and magnetic resonance. The 17 papers found, involving a total sample size higher than 2600 patellae, showed a very high heterogeneity- around 93 % of I2 value, for height and width measurements when all the studies were analyzed together. Homogeneity increased when each study was classified according to the techniques used. In this case, a statistical difference appeared, among the several subgroups of techniques for the two measurements, suggesting the importance of the methodology used. Maximum height and maximum width were all showed to be statistically relevant in distinguishing both sexes.

El dimorfismo sexual es una de las formas más importantes para identificar restos óseos en desastres masivos. Se han utilizado huesos como cráneo, pelvis y huesos largos para la diferenciación sexual. Sin embargo, solo se han realizado unos pocos estudios con la patela y, hasta donde sabemos, no hay evaluaciones de resultados anteriores en la literatura. El meta-análisis proporciona una herramienta sólida y útil para probar, de manera sistemática, la información más relevante sobre un cierto campo de investigación. El objetivo de este estudio consiste en aplicar la técnica metaanalítica para evaluar los principales estudios sobre dimorfismo sexual en la patela midiendo los rasgos métricos clásicos: altura máxima y anchura máxima, con diferentes técnicas: calibre, radiografía, tomografía y resonancia magnética. Los 17 de documentos encontrados, con un tamaño de muestra total superior a 2600 patelas, mostraron una heterogeneidad muy alta, alrededor del 93 % del valor de I2, para mediciones de altura y anchura cuando todos los estudios se analizaron juntos. La homogeneidad aumentó cuando cada estudio se clasificó de acuerdo con las técnicas utilizadas. En este caso, se observó diferencias estadísticas, entre los subgrupos de técnicas para las dos mediciones, lo que sugiere la importancia de la metodología utilizada. La altura máxima y la anchura máxima mostraron ser estadísticamente relevantes para distinguir ambos sexos.

Assessment of clitoral anatomy in human fetuses.

PURPOSE: To determine fetal clitoral dimensions in antenatal period and to provide a contribution to external genital morphology determination in premature infants. METHODS: Thirty-one formalin fixed female fetuses aged between 18 and 40 weeks (17 fetuses aged 21.53 ± 1.88 weeks in the second trimester and 14 fetuses aged 31.00 ± 4.90 weeks in the third trimester) were evaluated. 20 (64.5%) fetuses were between 3 and 97% percentile range and within normal limits. Clitoris appearance (completely covered by labium majus/partially showing/prominent), length and width of clitoris, labium minus length, length, and width of labium majus were assessed. RESULTS: Clitoris length during the second trimester was 4.84 ± 1.09 mm, whereas it was 5.43 ± 1.07 in the third trimester. Clitoris width was as 3.35 ± 0.88 mm in the second trimester and as 4.55 ± 0.96 mm in the third trimester. A statistically significant increase was seen in width of clitoris, length, and width of labium majus and length of labium minus with gestational age in the second and third trimesters (p < 0.05). No significant difference was found between the second and third trimesters in terms of clitoris length (p = 0.146). A homogenous spread in clitoris appearance was obtained between the second and third trimesters without any significant difference (p = 0.912). In addition, fetus percentiles showed a homogenous spread without any significant differences between completely covered, partially covered and prominent groups (p = 0.452). CONCLUSION: The anatomical data can be beneficial to the development of fetal radiological screening procedures in females and also in morphological assessment criteria in premature infants, effectively assisting in diagnosing anomalies during the early term.

Application of embryo biopsy and sex determination via polymerase chain reaction in a commercial equine embryo transfer program in Argentina.

Embryo biopsy for fetal sexing has clinical application, but few reports are available of its use within an active embryo transfer program. We evaluated results on biopsy of 459 embryos over one breeding season. There were no significant differences in pregnancy rate between biopsied and non-biopsied embryos (72% vs 73%) or for biopsied embryos recovered at the centre (73%) compared with those shipped overnight (72%). However, the pregnancy rate decreased significantly in shipped embryos biopsied ≥20h after collection. Overall, 86% of biopsies provided a sex diagnosis. The likelihood of a positive genomic (g) DNA result was significantly higher for biopsies from large blastocysts (96%) than from smaller embryos (70-85%). In total, 38% of biopsies were positive for Y chromosome DNA (Y-DNA) and were diagnosed as male. Subsequently, 95% of Y-DNA-positive embryos were confirmed as male and 78% of Y-DNA-negative embryos were confirmed as female. The accuracy of prediction of female (Y-DNA negative) was significantly higher when the biopsy sample was probed for Y-DNA only compared with probing for both gDNA and Y-DNA. We estimate that by transferring only Y-DNA-negative embryos, 3% of potential female pregnancies may have been lost, and production of male pregnancies was reduced by 72%.

Measuring Quality of Life Loss in Litigation.

This article discusses measuring quality of life (QOL) loss in litigation. Case examples are provided. The complexity challenge in QOL assessment is more easily addressed since the advent of computer adaptive testing, which is used by physicians and rehabilitationists in the administration of psychometric instruments to determine QOL loss. It is now possible to write algorithms to capture QOL data through text-mining. If QOL domains and their factors could be accessed through text-mining, it would make for an extraordinary opportunity for much needed doctoral level research in QOL issues for injured workers in workers' compensation programs.

Comparative evaluation of the cost and efficiency of four types of sexing methods for the production of dairy female calves.

This study was conducted to evaluate and compare the economic benefits of different embryo sexing methods, based on the cost per female dairy calf produced. Female calves were produced from four kinds of female embryos: (1) those collected from superstimulated donors at 7-8 days after artificial insemination (AI) with X-sorted semen; (2) those sex-determined by loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay of a biopsy sample of embryos collected from superstimulated donors after AI with conventional unsorted semen; (3) those obtained by invitro embryo production (IVEP), using X-sorted semen and in vitro-matured oocytes collected from donors by ovum pick-up (OPU); and (4) those obtained by IVEP, using X-sorted semen and oocytes collected by OPU after dominant follicle ablation and follicle growth stimulation of the donors. The respective productivities of female calves per technical service and the total production cost per female calf of each sexing method were compared. The production cost per female calf (66,537 JPY), as calculated from the number of female calves per service (1.30), pregnancy rate of transfer (42.9%), rate of female calves obtained (92.9%), and total cost of the method (56,643 JPY plus embryo transfer fee), was less for IVEP with X-sorted semen and follicular growth-stimulated (FGS) oocytes than for the other groups (P < 0.05). The results demonstrate that embryo production with X-sorted semen and FGS oocytes provides a more efficient method for producing female calves than the other embryo sexing methods.

Satisfaction with the gender of the baby and related factors.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to determine the correlation between having a baby of the desired gender and related factors. DESIGN AND METHODS: The participants were 612 women who gave birth to their babies in the postpartum unit of a hospital in Malatya, Turkey. FINDINGS: Factors linked to having a baby of the desired gender were: having had a gender preference in a previous pregnancy (2.13 times on average; P = 0.001), their partners having a gender preference (2.87 times on average; P = 0.001 and 0.005). PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: It was found that having a baby of the desired gender was an important factor that affected some fertility characteristics. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING PRACTICE: It is important to recognize that gender preference exists and investigate it as a variable.

Bioeconomics of sexed semen utilization in a high-producing Holstein-Friesian dairy herd.

A bioeconomic, stochastic spreadsheet model, that included calculation of the net present value of the additional value of all future descendants resulting from increased selection intensity, was developed to study the profitability of using sexed semen in a high input-high output dairy herd. Three management strategies were modeled: (1) only heifers inseminated with sex-sorted semen and cows inseminated with unsorted semen; (2) both heifers and cows inseminated with sex-sorted semen; and (3) a reference scenario, in which all breeding females were inseminated with unsorted semen. A Monte Carlo simulation (@risk software, Palisade Corp., Ithaca, NY) was run to study the sensitivity of net profit and sexed semen advantage to key input parameters. Most input parameters were given truncated normal distributions, whereas the maximum numbers of inseminations in heifers and cows were given discrete distribution functions. The calculated intensity of selection accounted for the different numbers of dairy females born for each of the 100,000 iterations. Using sexed semen (X-sorted, female) was shown to be profitable, with insemination of both heifers and cows being most profitable. The returns on assets were higher when only heifers were inseminated with sexed semen (8.54% ± 2.94; ±SD) or all females were inseminated with sexed semen (8.85% ± 2.93) than when all females were inseminated with unsexed semen (8.38% ± 2.95). The range in net profit was most sensitive to the assumed distributions of milk protein price (€/kg), milk fat price (€/kg), cow pregnancy rate, fertilizer price (€/t), and concentrate price (€/t) when unsorted semen was used. When only heifers or both heifers and cows were inseminated with sex-sorted semen, the range in net profit was most sensitive to the same distributions, with fertilizer price and cow pregnancy rate in reverse order of sensitivity. However, the range in sex-sorted semen advantage (in net profit) when only heifers were inseminated with sex-sorted semen was most sensitive to the assumed distributions of cow pregnancy rate, sex-sorted semen pregnancy rate as a percent of unsorted semen rates, standard deviation of index, additional cost of sex-sorted semen (€/dose), dairy bull calf price (€/head), and dairy heifer calf price (€/head). When both heifers and cows were inseminated, the order of importance of the last 2 inputs was reversed. This study highlights the relatively high effect of pregnancy rate and the genetic value of dairy bulls in determining the level of financial advantage from using sex-sorted semen in a dairy herd.

The challenge of monitoring elusive large carnivores: An accurate and cost-effective tool to identify and sex pumas (Puma concolor) from footprints.

Acquiring reliable data on large felid populations is crucial for effective conservation and management. However, large felids, typically solitary, elusive and nocturnal, are difficult to survey. Tagging and following individuals with VHF or GPS technology is the standard approach, but costs are high and these methodologies can compromise animal welfare. Such limitations can restrict the use of these techniques at population or landscape levels. In this paper we describe a robust technique to identify and sex individual pumas from footprints. We used a standardized image collection protocol to collect a reference database of 535 footprints from 35 captive pumas over 10 facilities; 19 females (300 footprints) and 16 males (235 footprints), ranging in age from 1-20 yrs. Images were processed in JMP data visualization software, generating one hundred and twenty three measurements from each footprint. Data were analyzed using a customized model based on a pairwise trail comparison using robust cross-validated discriminant analysis with a Ward's clustering method. Classification accuracy was consistently > 90% for individuals, and for the correct classification of footprints within trails, and > 99% for sex classification. The technique has the potential to greatly augment the methods available for studying puma and other elusive felids, and is amenable to both citizen-science and opportunistic/local community data collection efforts, particularly as the data collection protocol is inexpensive and intuitive.

RAD SNP markers as a tool for conservation of dolphinfish Coryphaena hippurus in the Mediterranean Sea: Identification of subtle genetic structure and assessment of populations sex-ratios.

Dolphinfish is an important fish species for both commercial and sport fishing, but so far limited information is available on genetic variability and pattern of differentiation of dolphinfish populations in the Mediterranean basin. Recently developed techniques allow genome-wide identification of genetic markers for better understanding of population structure in species with limited genome information. Using restriction-site associated DNA analysis we successfully genotyped 140 individuals of dolphinfish from eight locations in the Mediterranean Sea at 3324 SNP loci. We identified 311 sex-related loci that were used to assess sex-ratio in dolphinfish populations. In addition, we identified a weak signature of genetic differentiation of the population closer to Gibraltar Strait in comparison to other Mediterranean populations, which might be related to introgression of individuals from Atlantic. No further genetic differentiation could be detected in the other populations sampled, as expected considering the known highly mobility of the species. The results obtained improve our knowledge of the species and can help managing dolphinfish stock in the future.

Sex Assessment Using the Femur and Tibia in Medieval Skeletal Remains from Ireland: Discriminant Function Analysis.

Sex determination based on discriminant function analysis of skeletal measurements is probably the most effective method for assessment of sex in archaeological and contemporary populations due to various reasons, but it also suffers from limitations such as population specificity. In this paper standards for sex assessment from the femur and tibia in the medieval Irish population are presented. Six femoral and six tibial measurements obtained from 56 male and 45 female skeletons were subjected to discriminant function analysis. Average accuracies obtained by this study range between 87.1 and 97%. The highest level of accuracy (97%) was achieved when using combined variables of the femur and tibia (maximum diameter of femoral head and circumference at tibial nutrient foramen), as well as two variables of the tibia (proximal epiphyseal breadth and circumference at nutrient foramen). Discriminant functions using a single variable provided accuracies between 87.1 and 96% with the circumference at the level of the tibial nutrient foramen providing the best separation. High accuracy rates obtained by this research correspond to the data recorded in other studies thus confirming the importance of discriminant function analysis in assessment of sex in both archaeological and forensic contexts.

A universal and reliable assay for molecular sex identification of three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus).

In heterogametic species, biological differences between the two sexes are ubiquitous, and hence, errors in sex identification can be a significant source of noise and bias in studies where sex-related sources of variation are of interest or need to be controlled for. We developed and validated a universal multimarker assay for reliable sex identification of three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus). The assay makes use of genotype scores from three sex-linked loci and utilizes Bayesian probabilistic inference to identify sex of the genotyped individuals. The results, validated with 286 phenotypically sexed individuals from six populations of sticklebacks representing all major genetic lineages (cf. Pacific, Atlantic and Japan Sea), indicate that in contrast to commonly used single-marker-based sex identification assays, the developed multimarker assay should be 100% accurate. As the markers in the assay can be scored from agarose gels, it provides a quick and cost-efficient tool for universal sex identification of three-spined sticklebacks. The general principle of combining information from multiple markers to improve the reliability of sex identification is transferable and can be utilized to develop and validate similar assays for other species.

"If a woman has even one daughter, I refuse to perform the abortion": Sex determination and safe abortion in India.

In India, safe abortion services are sought mainly in the private sector for reasons of privacy, confidentiality, and the absence of delays and coercion to use contraception. In recent years, the declining sex ratio has received much attention, and implementation of the Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (PCPNDT) Act (2003) has become stringent. However, rather than targeting sex determination, many inspection visits target abortion services. This has led to many private medical practitioners facing negative media publicity, defamation and criminal charges. As a result, they have started turning women away not only in the second trimester but also in the first. Samyak, a Pune-based, non-governmental organization, came across a number of cases of refusal of abortion services during its work and decided to explore the experiences of private medical practitioners with the regulatory mechanisms and what happened to the women. The study showed that as a fallout from the manner of implementation of the PCPNDT Act, safe abortion services were either difficult for women to access or outright denied to them. There is an urgent need to recognize this impact of the current regulatory environment, which is forcing women towards illegal and unsafe abortions.