Anthrax in one health in Southern and Southeastern Europe - the effect of climate change?

Anthrax is a serious infection caused by Bacillus anthracis. The anthracis spores are highly resistant and can persist in the environment for several decades. Therefore, anthrax is considered a global health threat affecting wildlife, livestock, and the general public. The resistance mechanism is influenced not only by the environment or the ecological niche but also by virulence factors. In the last 10 years the Southern and Southeastern Europe have been confronted with this threat. Recently, there have been 8 human anthrax cases reported in Croatia (2022), and 4 cases in Romania (2023). Moreover, this incident and the COVID situation could be a starting point to encourage researchers to raise the alarm. On the other hand, climate change is causing glaciers to melt and land to thaw, and many wetlands and swampy areas are being drained. It should not be forgotten that epidemiological and epizootic threats significantly affect the country's economic development. The Covid-19 epidemic best illustrates these threats.

Assessment of socio-behavioural correlates and risk perceptions regarding anthrax disease in tribal communities of Odisha, Eastern India.

BACKGROUND: This study is a baseline survey to assess the knowledge, attitude and practices with regards to the anthrax disease among the communities before demonstrating a One Health approach for elimination of human anthrax in an endemic district of Odisha. A total of 2670 respondents from 112 villages of 14 blocks were interviewed for the study using a structured questionnaire by multi-stage sampling method. Descriptive statistics were reported and logistic regression was performed to estimate the relationship between the variables and knowledge of anthrax. RESULT: Out of 2670 participants in the study, 76.25% were male and about half were illiterate. Most of the respondents (54.19%) were involved in agriculture as an occupation. 71% of the respondents had livestock in their houses and farming was the main purpose for keeping the livestock. Only one-fifth of the respondents (20.26%) knew about anthrax and a majority of them have come across the disease during community outbreaks. Almost 25.9% of livestock owners had knowledge about vaccination against anthrax disease although 83.4% of the livestock owners disposed the animal carcass by burial method. CONCLUSION: The study findings indicated that the community members had poor knowledge of cause, symptoms, transmission and prevention of anthrax disease which may be improved by a One Health approach.

Assessment of knowledge, attitudes and practices towards anthrax in Narok County, Southern Kenya.

INTRODUCTION: anthrax is endemic in some parts of Kenya causing mortalities in livestock and morbidity in humans. On January 20th, 2018, news media reported suspected anthrax in a remote southern Kenyan village after villagers became ill following consumption of meat from a dead cow that was confirmed, by microscopy, to have died of anthrax. We assessed community knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) to identify intervention gaps for anthrax prevention. METHODS: we conducted a KAP survey in randomly selected households (HHs) in villages from selected wards. Using multi-stage sampling approach, we administered structured questionnaire to persons aged ≥15 years to collect KAP information from February 11th-21st, 2018. From a set of questions for KAP, we scored participants' response as "1" for a correct response and "0" for an incorrect response. Univariate analysis and Chi-square tests were performed to explore determinants of KAP. Concurrently, we gathered qualitative data using interview guides for thematic areas on anthrax KAP from key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Qualitative data were transcribed in Ms Word and analyzed along themes by content analysis. RESULTS: among 334 respondents: 187/334 (56%) were male; mean age, 40.7±13.6 years; 331/334 (99.1%) had heard of anthrax and 304/331 (91.8%) knew anthrax to be zoonotic. Transmission was considered to be through eating dead-carcasses by 273/331 (82.5%) and through contact with infected tissue by 213/331 (64.4%). About 59% (194/329) regularly vaccinated their livestock against anthrax, 53.0% (174/328) had slaughtered or skinned a dead-animal and 59.5% (195/328) practiced home slaughter while 52.9% (172/325) treated sick-animals by themselves. Sex (p≤0.001), age (p=0.007) and livestock-rearing years (p≤0.001) were significantly associated with knowledge and practice. CONCLUSION: there were differences in knowledge and practices towards anthrax by age-group and sex. Enhanced public health education and targeted interventions by relevant government agencies is recommended.

Risk mapping and eco-anthropogenic assessment of anthrax in the upper Zambezi basin.

In Zambia, anthrax has emerged as a serious disease decimating humans, livestock and wildlife with devastating effects on eco-tourism resulting in the destabilization of major pristine wildlife sanctuaries. Consequently, the thrust of this study was to establish the spatial distribution of anthrax and determine ecological drivers of its recurrence, maintenance and epidemiological linkage to anthropogenic activities. Environmental and biological samples were collected within the livestock production and conservation areas (n = 80). Each sample was serially tested for Bacillus anthracis positivity through blood agar culture and Gram stain technique, and then confirmation by multiplex polymerase chain reaction (MPCR). Questionnaires (n = 113) were conducted at independently distinct villages in terms of space and time. Most respondents showed that animals that died from anthrax were not properly disposed off. More likely than not, poverty being the main driver for anthrax carcass dressing and meat distribution contributed to environmental contamination with anthrax spores in areas where the animals subsequently died resulting in further environmental contamination, which is the major source of primary infection for livestock and wildlife. From the samples, 15 pure isolates of anthrax were obtained which were spatially distributed across four districts. Twelve, biologically plausible variables were found to be highly significant on multivariable logistic regression analysis model for questionnaires which included herd size (odds = 10.46; P = 0.005; CI 8.8-16), carcass disposal method (odds = 6.9; P = 0.001; CI = 3.4-9.8), access to veterinary services (odds = 10.87; P = 0.004; CI = 4.8-15.9) and management system (odds = 2.57; P = 0.001; CI = 1.3-7.5). In summary, the majority (78.7%) of anthrax outbreaks were observed in areas with low veterinary services (χ2  = 8.6162, P = 0.013) within the newly created districts of Nalolo, Mwandi and Luampa.

Quantitative anti-PA IgG ELISA; assessment and comparability with the anthrax toxin neutralization assay in goats.

BACKGROUND: Presently, few data exist on the level and duration of anti-protective antigen (PA) IgG in vaccinated livestock. Various adaptation of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) have been developed in studies to assess immune response following vaccination, albeit mostly in laboratory rodent models. The quantitative anti-anthrax IgG ELISA in this study describes a method of enumerating the concentration of anti-PA specific IgG present in sera of immunized goats, with the aid of an affinity-purified caprine polyclonal anti-anthrax PA-83 IgG standard. This was compared with the anthrax toxin neutralization assay (TNA) which measures a functional subset of toxin neutralizing anti-PA IgG. RESULTS: The measured concentrations obtained in the standard curve correlated with the known concentration at each dilution. Percentage recovery of the standard concentrations ranged from 89 to 98% (lower and upper asymptote respectively). Mean correlation coefficient (r2) of the standard curve was 0.998. Evaluation of the intra-assay coefficient of variation showed ranges of 0.23-16.90% and 0.40-12.46% for days 28 and 140 sera samples respectively, following vaccination. The mean inter-assay coefficient of variation for triplicate samples repeated on 5 different days was 18.53 and 12.17% for days 28 and 140 sera samples respectively. Spearman's rank correlation of log-transformed IgG concentrations and TNA titres showed strong positive correlation (rs = 0.942; p = 0.01). CONCLUSION: This study provides evidence that an indirect ELISA can be used for the quantification of anti-anthrax PA IgG in goats with the added advantage of using single dilutions to save time and resources. The use of such related immunoassays can serve as potential adjuncts to potency tests for Sterne and other vaccine types under development in ruminant species. This is the first report on the correlation of polyclonal anti-anthrax PA83 antibody with the TNA in goats.

Characterization of genetic diversity of Bacillus anthracis in France by using high-resolution melting assays and multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis.

Using high-resolution melting (HRM) analysis, we developed a cost-effective method to genotype a set of 13 phylogenetically informative single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the genome of Bacillus anthracis. SNP discrimination assays were performed in monoplex or duplex and applied to 100 B. anthracis isolates collected in France from 1953 to 2009 and a few reference strains. HRM provided a reliable and cheap alternative to subtype B. anthracis into one of the 12 major sublineages or subgroups. All strains could be correctly positioned on the canonical SNP (canSNP) phylogenetic tree, except the divergent Pasteur vaccine strain ATCC 4229. We detected the cooccurrence of three canSNP subgroups in France. The dominant B.Br.CNEVA sublineage was found to be prevalent in the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Auvergne region, and the Saône-et-Loire department. Strains affiliated with the A.Br.008/009 subgroup were observed throughout most of the country. The minor A.Br.001/002 subgroup was restricted to northeastern France. Multiple-locus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis using 24 markers further resolved French strains into 60 unique profiles and identified some regional patterns. Diversity found within the A.Br.008/009 and B.Br.CNEVA subgroups suggests that these represent old, ecologically established clades in France. Phylogenetic relationships with strains from other parts of the world are discussed.

Producing, controlling, and stabilizing Pasteur's anthrax vaccine: creating a new industry and a health market.

When Pasteur and Chamberland hastily set up their small biological industry to meet the agricultural demand for the anthrax vaccine, their methods for preparation and production had not yet been stabilized. The process of learning how to standardize biological products was accelerated in 1882 when vaccination accidents required the revision of production norms as the first hypotheses on fixity, inalterability, and transportability of vaccines were invalidated and replaced by procedures for continuous monitoring of the calibration of vaccines and the renewal of vaccine strains. Initially, the incompleteness and ongoing development of production standards justified Pasteur's monopoly on the production of the anthrax vaccine under his immediate supervision. Later on, the Pasteur Institute maintained control of these standards in the framework of a commercial monopoly that it established on the veterinary vaccines first sent and then cultivated abroad by the Société de Vulgarisation du Vaccin Charbonneux Pasteur, founded in 1886.

Private and public economic incentives for the control of animal diseases: the case of anthrax in livestock.

This study examined the roles of the public and private sectors as economic components of anthrax control with direct reference to the 2005 anthrax outbreak in livestock in North Dakota. Anthrax is an endemic disease in North Dakota, which often causes disease outbreaks in livestock, leading to economic losses to the livestock industry. The economic incentives and interests behind public and private control of an anthrax outbreak are investigated. Anthrax management is most effective with the participation of public and private firms. As anthrax is an infectious disease, its control also brings positive economic externalities, which are not accounted for in a producer's decision to protect animals. Therefore, public programs designed to control the disease must be implemented. The government can change producer response to anthrax by setting up policies and incentives that encourage their participation. However, these interventions must encourage compliance and not discourage producers from actively taking part in anthrax management. Producers have economy-based interests and personal reasons for controlling anthrax in their farms. The main reason behind government intervention is to provide assurance to the public who consume livestock products. Another reason is to assist producers and veterinarians, and to achieve biosecurity and biosafety objectives. The contribution of each animal healthcare partner in making anthrax management a success in North Dakota is discussed.

[Epidemiological situation on anthrax in the regions of the Southern Federal District in connection with the flood in June 2002]. / Epidemiologicheskaia obstanovka po Sibirskoi iazve v regionakh Iuzhnogo Federal'nogo Okruga v sviazi s navodeniem v iiune 2002 g.

Data on the epidemiological situation in anthrax in the regions of the Southern Federal District, situated in the zone of inundation, are presented. In 2002 no epidemic complications in anthrax were noted in the affected territories. The causes contributing to the appearance of anthrax cases among humans and animals are presented. Recommendations on the improvement of anti-epidemic measures are given.

An outbreak of anthrax in pigs: a practitioner's account.

An outbreak of anthrax occurred in a 500 sow unit at Singret Farm, Llay, during the summer of 1989. This paper describes the sequence of events leading up to the depopulation of the farm, as seen and recorded by a veterinary surgeon in the practice involved. Some of the problems encountered and their significance for the future are discussed.