Perspective: The Place of Pork Meat in Sustainable Healthy Diets.

The food systems sustainability framework has 4 domains: nutrition, economics, environment, and society. To qualify as sustainable, individual foods and total diets need to be nutrient-rich, affordable, environmentally friendly, and socially acceptable. Pork is the most consumed meat globally, providing high-quality protein and several priority micronutrients. With research attention focused on plant-based diets, it is time to assess the place of pork meat protein in the global sustainability framework. First, not all proteins are equal. The United States Department of Agriculture category of protein foods includes meat, poultry and fish, eggs, beans and legumes, and nuts and seeds. These protein sources have different protein digestibility profiles, different per-calorie prices, and different environmental footprints, measured in terms of greenhouse gas emissions. Second, most analyses of animal-source proteins combine beef, pork, and lamb into a single category of red meat. Beef, pork, and lamb have different nutrient profiles, different protein costs, and different impacts on the environment. Future analyses of nutrient density and monetary and carbon costs of alternative diets would do well to separate pork from beef, lamb, and chicken. There are also different profiles of global food demand. Prior analyses of global Food and Agriculture Organization Statistical Database food balance sheets joined with World Bank country incomes have consistently shown that rising incomes across lower- and middle-income countries (LMIC) create a growing demand for meat to replace traditional plant proteins. Most of the observed increase has been for pork and chicken rather than beef. This ongoing LMIC protein transition toward more animal proteins may be irreversible as long as incomes grow. The present analyses explore the place of pork in sustainable healthy diets worldwide, given the need for high-quality protein and the predictable patterns of global food demand.

Fresh Pork as Protein Source in the USDA Thrifty Food Plan 2021: A Modeling Analysis of Lowest-Cost Healthy Diets.

The USDA Thrifty Food Plan (TFP) is an estimate of a lowest-cost healthy diet that meets dietary guidelines while respecting existing eating habits. In the US, the TFP provides the basis for federal food assistance. Included in the TFP are protein foods from both animal and plant sources. The present goal was to explore the place of fresh pork among protein foods in the revised TFP 2021. Our analyses used the same databases and the same quadratic programming (QP) methods as had been used by the USDA to develop the TFP 2021. Dietary intakes came from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES 2015-16); nutrient composition data came from the Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies (FNDDS 2015-16), and national food prices came from the 2021 TFP report. Amounts and prices were for foods as consumed. Our QP Model 1 used USDA modeling categories to replicate the TFP 2021. The non-poultry meat category was then separated into pork and beef. Model 2 examined whether the TFP 2021 algorithm would select pork or beef. Model 3 sought the lowest cost healthy diet, the same as the TFP 2021. Model 4 replaced beef and poultry with pork; whereas Model 5 replaced pork and poultry with beef. Weekly costs were calculated for a family of four and eight age-gender groups. All models met the nutrient requirements. The market basket cost for a family of four in Model 1 was USD 189.88, compared to the purchase price of USD 192.84 in the TFP 2021. In Model 2, fresh pork was selected preferentially over beef. The lowest-cost healthy food plan in Model 3 increased fresh pork to 3.4 lbs/week. Replacing beef and poultry with pork in Model 4 led to a modest decrease in the weekly cost. Replacing pork and poultry with beef in Model 5 led to a major increase in the weekly cost. We conclude, based on TFP-analogous modeling, that fresh pork is the preferred meat source, providing high-quality protein at a low cost. QP methods, as used in the TFP 2021, are a valuable tool for designing food plans that are affordable, acceptable, and nutrient-rich.

Hepatitis E virus in pork meat products and exposure assessment in Belgium.

Zoonotic hepatitis E virus (HEV) genotype 3 infections are the predominant cause of acute viral hepatitis in Europe, mostly associated with the consumption of HEV contaminated pork meat. In this study we looked at the HEV RNA positivity rate of pork meat products readily available from Belgian supermarkets and evaluated the overall HEV consumer exposure in a Belgian context. Two basic assessments were performed in a 'worst-case' scenario setting: one solely focusing on the contamination level of the product itself (ingredients and processing parameters) and another estimating the overall consumer exposure, taking into account consumption habits in Belgium. Non-thermal-processed ready-to-eat (i.e. ready for consumption without additional cooking step by consumer) pork meat products (e.g. raw dried sausages), had a high estimated HEV contamination level, while thermal-processed ready-to-eat pork meat products (e.g. pork liver pâté) had the highest overall consumer exposure estimates. Following these assessments, pork liver pâtés, raw dried hams and raw dried sausages (n = 54) were purchased from Belgian supermarkets (n = 3) and analyzed for HEV RNA by RT-PCR. In total, 31 % (n = 17) products tested positive. HEV RNA was found in 65 % of the pork liver pâtés, 15 % of raw dried hams and 0 % of raw dried sausages. Phylogenetic analysis of four isolates (all gt3c) from pork liver pâté samples showed similarities with human clinical cases from Germany and Belgium.

Quantitative microbiological risk assessment of nontyphoidal Salmonella in ground pork in households in Chengdu, China.

Foodborne disease caused by nontyphoidal Salmonella (NTS) is one of the most important food safety issues worldwide. The objectives of this study were to carry out microbial monitoring on the prevalence of NTS in commercial ground pork, investigate consumption patterns, and conduct a quantitative microbiological risk assessment (QMRA) that considers cross-contamination to determine the risk caused by consuming ground pork and ready-to-eat food contaminated during food handling in the kitchen in Chengdu, China. The food pathway of ground pork was simplified and assumed to be several units according to the actual situation and our survey data, which were collected from our research or references and substituted into the QMRA model for simulation. The results showed that the prevalence of NTS in ground pork purchased in Chengdu was 69.64% (95% confidence interval [CI], 60.2-78.0), with a mean contamination level of -0.164 log CFU/g. After general cooking, NTS in ground pork could be eliminated (contamination level of zero). The estimated probability of causing salmonellosis per day was 9.43E-06 (95% CI: 8.82E-06-1.00E-05), while the estimated salmonellosis cases per million people per year were 3442 (95% CI: 3218-3666). According to the sensitivity analysis, the occurrence of cross-contamination was the most important factor affecting the probability of salmonellosis. To reduce the risk of salmonellosis caused by NTS through ground pork consumption, reasonable hygiene prevention and control measures should be adopted during food preparation to reduce cross-contamination. This study provides valuable information for household cooking and food safety management in China.

Assessment of quality deviation of pork and salmon due to temperature fluctuations during superchilling.

Superchilling is an emerging technology for meat preservation; however, the temperature changes during the process have been commonly ignored. Thus, the effects of temperature fluctuations on meat quality during superchilling are yet to be evaluated. In our study, pork loins and salmon fillets were stored for several days (0, 8, 15, 23, and 30 d) under different temperature fluctuations based on -3.5 ℃ as the target temperature. The results showed that after 15 d of superchilling storage, the values of total volatile basic nitrogen, total viable count, and lipid oxidation were significantly (P<0.05) altered in the ±2.0 ℃ fluctuation group compared with the constant temperature group. On the contrary, there was no significant difference in these parameters between the ±1.0 ℃ fluctuation group and the constant temperature group after 30 d of storage. In addition, irregular temperature changes significantly accelerated the modulation of various indicators. In brief, temperature fluctuations and irregular temperature changes accelerated the destruction of muscle structural integrity, increased the water loss, gradually widened the water loss channels, and thereby reduced the edibility by accelerating the spoilage of meat.

Consumer awareness of sustainable supply chains: A choice experiment on Parma ham PDO.

The food system produces emissions at all stages, from agriculture and its inputs, and the livestock sector is nowadays one of the most significant contributors to environmental problems. The European swine production system is mainly intensive and generates high external costs such as water and air pollution. As a response to these emerging issues, there is a growing interest in the relationships between marketing and sustainability, with people that have begun to pay much more attention to health, environmental friendliness, and quality of products. The aim of this study is to understand if there is a market for a high-quality "Parma ham PDO", produced in sustainable supply chain at an environmental, health and animal welfare level. In this paper, we use discrete choice experiments to investigate Italian consumer's preferences and their willingness to pay (WTP) for Parma ham PDO with different characteristics, amongst which the use of air scrubber technology reducing pollutants emissions. Results seem to encourage the pork industry in better exploring pollutant emissions' reduction, showing a consumers' willingness to pay for this production technology. Similarly, results of this study can suggest the existence of a niche market for this typology of production.

Cross-sectional risk assessment of zoonotic Streptococcus suis in pork and swine blood in Nakhon Sawan Province in northern Thailand.

A cross-sectional study evaluated the risk of zoonotic Streptococcus suis (S. suis) illness from consuming raw pork and swine blood in Nakhon Sawan Province. A four-step risk assessment recommended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission was used to evaluate the risk along the pork supply chain. A total of 480 pork and swine blood samples were collected from the abattoir (n = 120) and retail (n = 360) during December 2020 and January 2021. Streptococcus suis in samples was enumerated using a culture-based technique and then confirmed by the biochemical and molecular technique. Streptococcus suis was serotyped by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Two positive swine blood samples were contaminated with non-zoonotic S. suis serotype 23 at retail. In the case of all negative samples, the deterministic prevalence becomes zero and then the risk could not be estimated. Otherwise, the beta probability distribution was used to describe the probabilistic prevalence, while the maximum likelihood estimator was applied to estimate the upper limit of a probability distribution of concentration. The district averages of probabilistic prevalences of zoonotic S. suis in pork products at abattoir and retail were 9.9% and 4.1%, respectively. The district averages of concentrations of zoonotic S. suis in pork and blood samples from abattoir were 6.8 × 10-3  cfu/g and 6.83 cfu/ml and in pork and blood samples from retail were 2.3 × 10-3  cfu/g and 2.30 cfu/ml, respectively. The overall annual risk estimate per 100,000 population in pork and swine blood from abattoir and retail were 9.8 × 10-11 , 2.2 × 10-6 , 5.4 × 10-13 , and 8.3 × 10-8 . These risk estimates were negligible (<10-6 ) except for the annual risk estimate in swine blood from the abattoir. The results from this cross-sectional risk assessment should prompt the food safety regulator to cautiously sample by taking into account the duration of sampling and sample size.

Risk Assessment of Veterinary Drug Residues in Pork on the Market in the People's Republic of China.

ABSTRACT: Veterinary drugs, including antibiotics, antiparasitics, and growth promoters, are widely used in animal husbandry. Veterinary drug residues are key issues of food safety because they arouse public concern and can seriously endanger the health of consumers. To assess the risk of veterinary drug residues in pork sold in the People's Republic of China, the potential veterinary drug residue risks in imported and domestic pork were analyzed based on regulatory differences and veterinary drug residue safety incidents. For imported pork, a risk assessment model was established based on the differences in veterinary drug residue limits for the People's Republic of China, Brazil, the United States, Australia, Thailand, and Russia combined with comprehensive evaluation methods. The potential risk of veterinary drug residues in U.S. pork was the highest, and that in Brazilian pork was the lowest. For domestic pork, the distribution and aggregation of veterinary drug residue safety incidents in the People's Republic of China was analyzed from 2015 to 2019 with a geographic information system. This study provides new insights into the safety of pork on the Chinese market and a scientific basis for formulating targeted supervision and early warning strategies.

The environmental performance of different pork production scenarios: a life cycle assessment study.

In order to evaluate the environmental performance generated by a "semi-technified" pig farm, as well as the comparison of different pig production scenarios, pig feed and animal production subsystems were evaluated considering both: (a) origin of feed ingredients and (b) variations in pig weight. Life cycle assessment methodology was used to evaluate the environmental performance, establishing 1 market pig as the functional unit (FU). Three ingredient origin distances (400, 950, and 1800 km) and three slaughter weights (110, 100, and 90 kg) were considered for the simulation analysis and comparison. The feed production subsystem was the main generator of environmental impacts, mainly caused by the cultivation of sorghum and the production of fat. The origin of the inputs represented the main increase in environmental impact for the feed production subsystem, mainly in the Fossil Depletion category, with a fivefold increase by acquiring inputs from 900 km and a ninefold increase at a distance of 1800 km. Producing lighter pigs resulted in the best environmental alternative, given the resultant 11% reduction in environmental impact.

Towards a more comprehensive life cycle assessment framework for assessing toxicity-related impacts for livestock products: The case of Danish pork.

In life cycle assessments of livestock systems, toxicity-related impacts are not commonly considered or only specific aspects (such as pesticides, manufacturing of inputs) are assessed. In this context, the aim of this study was to define a framework for assessing toxicity-related impacts and to characterize human toxicity and freshwater ecotoxicity for a livestock product based on applying the state-of-the-art models PestLCI Consensus and USEtox. Furthermore, methodological gaps were discussed and ways forward were suggested. The case study focused on Danish pork production and the toxicity results were reported per kg 'meat' (the parts of pig used for human consumption) leaving the slaughterhouse. The assessment framework included the use of pesticides and heavy metals in feed production, the use of veterinary pharmaceuticals in pig production, and the manufacturing of inputs. The use of cleaning agents could not be assessed with the currently available methods. New characterization factors were calculated for 35 chemicals not available in USEtox. For Danish pork production, feed production was the main contributor to the analyzed toxicity impacts. The use of pesticides was the main driver for organic substances while heavy metal emissions related to the application of pig manure to fields were the hotspot for metal-based substances. The use of veterinary pharmaceuticals contributed only to freshwater ecotoxicity by 3%. PestLCI Consensus estimates were compared with different approaches. The impact of metabolites of pesticides and veterinary pharmaceuticals was assessed and discussed. Methodological gaps and research needs were identified regarding the assessment of pesticides, veterinary pharmaceuticals, metal-based substances, inorganic substances, and combined exposure to multiple chemicals. Better data related to the use and chemical properties of substances are needed to reduce uncertainty in toxicity modeling.

Method validation, residue analysis and dietary risk assessment of trifloxystrobin and trifloxystrobin acid in milk, eggs and pork.

Trifloxystrobin (TFS) is a widely used strobilurin fungicide and its residues accumulating in animal-derived food could result in potential harm to consumers. By optimization of extraction solvents and cleanup sorbents, a residue analysis method for TFS and its metabolite trifloxystrobin acid (TFSA) was established in milk, eggs and pork based on QuEChERS sample preparation and LC-MS/MS. The calibration curves exhibited good linearity with determination coefficients (R2 ) >0.9930 over the range of 0.5-250 ng/ml for both TFS and TFSA. The recoveries of the two analytes were 81-100% with RSD 3-10% and 76-96% with RSD 2-13%, respectively. The limit of quantification (LOQ) was 1 ng/g for both analytes. The milk, egg and pork samples, 30 each, were collected from the 30 main producing regions in China, and residues of TFS and TFSA were analyzed. The concentrations of both analytes were lower than the corresponding LOQs and maximum residue limits. Long-term dietary risk assessment showed that the hazard quotients were 0.001-0.003%, indicating an absence of unacceptable risks in milk, eggs and pork to the health of common consumers in China.

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of a food-production system in Spain: Iberian ham based on an extensive system.

Taking into account that in the literature on pork-production Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) there are a few studies about the Iberian pig, the present article evaluates an extensive (growing-fattening) Iberian-pig system in Spain, producing meat for Iberian ham and other quality-labelled products. The study has been based on Cumulative Energy Demand (CED), Global Warming Potential (GWP), ReCiPe (midpoint; endpoint) and USEtox (human toxicity; ecotoxicity). The analysis involves feed (for pigs and piglets), transportation, drinking water, straw usage and building materials (concrete). The impacts have been evaluated per kg of live or carcass weight (two functional units). The results show that the total impacts (per kg of live or carcass weight) range from: 1) 22.05 to 28.19 MJprim (CED), 2) 4.37 to 6.19 kg CO2.eq (GWP 20a, 100a and 500a), 3) 0.86 to 1.08 Pts (ReCiPe endpoint single-score, involving Human health, Ecosystems and Resources), 4) 9.9 × 10-6 to 1.2 × 10-5 DALY (ReCiPe endpoint with characterisation), 5) 2.8 × 10-7 to 3.5 × 10-7 (species.yr) (ReCiPe endpoint with characterisation), 6) 10.12 to 12.66 CTUe (USEtox: ecotoxicity). Overall, the results show that the feed for the pigs is responsible for the major part of the environmental impacts. More analytically, maize and soya are the components with the highest environmental impacts due to factors such as transportation, use of fertilisers and diesel fuel. The discussion about pig-production environmental impacts and the role of extensive pig farming is enriched with comparisons with the literature on pig-production LCA. Critical parameters are identified and discussed, with the aim of proposing solutions to reduce pork-production environmental impacts. Finally, the usefulness of the present study and future prospects are presented.

A stochastic assessment to quantify the risk of introduction of African swine fever virus to Taiwan via illegal pork products carried by international travellers.

The current study quantified the risk of releasing African swine fever virus (ASFV) into Taiwan from pork products illegally carried by international travellers from 157 countries or territories through six international airports and three international seaports. The association between various factors and the number of pork products detected by the border control authorities was also examined. The risk was estimated with a stochastic process after modelling the number of undetected illegal pork products, probability of pork product detection at international airports and seaports and probability of ASFV contamination of pork products from various countries. The overall annual probability of ASFV release to Taiwan was estimated to be 1 [95% confidence interval (CI): 1-1] under no enhanced mitigation measures. All the median airport-level risks were higher than .921, and four of them reached 1. The total annual risk was .570 (95% CI: .109-.937) for international seaports. The country or territory level risk was estimated to be 1 for Vietnam, China, Hong Kong, the Philippines and South Korea, .999 (95% CI: .628-1) for Macao and .967 (95% CI: .359-1) for Indonesia. After the total number of travellers was factored in, the number of detected illegal pork products was the highest in January and February, and travellers from Vietnam [risk ratio to Japan (RR): 80.45; 95% CI: 58.68-110.3], the Philippines (RR: 37.67; 95% CI: 26.9-52.74) and Cambodia (RR: 28.39; 95% CI: 12.69-63.51) were most likely to bring pork products to Taiwan. Our study indicated a high risk of ASFV introduction through international travellers and also identified the factors associated with the risk. This information can be used as empirical evidence for cost-effective risk mitigation practices.

Is there a potential international market for Danish welfare pork? - A consumer survey from Denmark, Sweden, and Germany.

This cross-country study investigates the potential to improve pig welfare by exploiting consumer demand, domestically and in export markets, for welfare pork produced in indoor production systems. The analysis is based on questionnaire data collected in 2019 focusing on demand for Danish welfare pork both in Denmark and in two nearby export markets, Sweden and Germany. To reduce hypothetical bias, a willingness-to-pay indicator is combined with an indicator of positive interest in buying a fictive Danish welfare labelled pork. We find that the market potential is relatively weak. Our findings indicate that there is some, albeit limited, potential in Denmark and Germany while demand is practically non-existing in Sweden, probably because the pig welfare guaranteed by Swedish legislation is similar to what is provided by the fictive welfare label employed in the study. Hence, consumer demand alone cannot secure enhanced pig welfare. Moreover, we found national differences in the characteristics of consumers who are interested in Danish welfare pork.

Quantitative risk assessment of human Taenia solium exposure from consuming pork produced in Punjab, India.

Taenia solium cysticercosis is a neglected zoonosis that affects people throughout much of the developing world. The disease is endemic in Punjab state of India and controlling it is a public health challenge. No studies have been conducted to quantify the risk of T. solium exposure from consuming pork produced in the state. A stochastic quantitative risk assessment (QRA) model was constructed to understand the risk of human T. solium infection from consuming pork produced in Punjab. Input data were collected from official records, published literature, active surveillance and specifically for this study. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to assess the influence of the input parameters on the main output probability that any one pork meal is infective (contains at least one viable cyst) at consumption. The probability of any pork meal in Punjab containing at least one viable T. solium cyst post-storage and post-cooking was median 5.57 × 10-4 (95% PI 1.06 × 10-4 -1.95 × 10-3 ). Sobol' sensitivity analysis demonstrated that the most influential input parameters on consumption of a pork meal with at least one viable T. solium were the probability that a meal is insufficiently cooked to render cysts unviable, and the proportion of infected carcasses following informal slaughter. Whilst improved sanitation and hygiene can prevent cysticercosis in people, efforts to reduce the prevalence of T. solium cysts in pig carcases by preventing pigs' access to human waste, increasing meat inspection and promoting effective cooking practices are also important to reduce this source of taeniasis.

[Preliminary quantitative risk assessment of the effect of Salmonella on human health in retail fresh pork].

OBJECTIVE: A quantitative microbiological risk assessment was conducted for Salmonella spp. in fresh pork from retail stores to consumers in China in order to provide evidence for adopting effective risk management measures. METHODS: The national food safety and risk monitoring data was used to estimate the initial contamination level of Salmonella in the retail fresh pork. The growth model and the cross-contamination model of Salmonella were referenced from the ComBase data base and scientific literature, respectively. Then the human health risk was predicted by the consumption of Salmonella-contaminated fresh pork and the Beta-Poisson dose-response model. RESULTS: The number of Salmonellosis per year among 1 million residents due to fresh pork was estimated to be 4748.The sensitivity analysis showed that the risk of Salmonellosis was mainly and positively correlated with the preparation rate of ready to eat food, the consumption quantity of pork, the initial contamination level of Salmonella in fresh pork, and the proportion of improper cleaning of knives and chopping boards. When the contamination level of Salmonella in fresh pork is controlled below 1 CFU/g, the average probability of illness will be reduced by 59.39%; the average probability of illness will be reduced by 58.97% by increasing the ratio of complete cleaning of chopping boards or the separation ratio of chopping boards for raw and ready-to-eat food to 90%. CONCLUSION: The risk could be effectively reduced by controlling the concentration of Salmonella contamination in retail pork or improving hygiene practices.

Regulation and Consumer Interest in an Antioxidant-Enriched Ham Associated with Reduced Colorectal Cancer Risks.

An economic experiment was conducted in France in 2020 to evaluate consumer attitudes toward two ham products associated with different colorectal cancer risks. We focused specifically on comparing a conventional ham and a new hypothetical antioxidant-enriched ham with a reduced risk of provoking colorectal cancer. Study participants were given descriptions of the two hams before carrying out successive rounds of willingness-to-pay (WTP) assessments. The results show that WTP was higher for the antioxidant-enriched ham than for the conventional ham. WTP estimates were also impacted by providing additional information about the reduction in colorectal cancer risk associated with the antioxidant-enriched ham. Based on the participants' WTP, we came up with ex ante estimates for the social impacts of introducing the antioxidant-enriched ham onto the market, and we suggest that it would be socially optimal to promote the product. Competition arising from pre-existing product labelling and marketing assertions could greatly limit the market potential of antioxidant-enriched ham, which suggests that alternative approaches may be necessary, such as regulations mandating antioxidant enrichment. These results also concern all countries with high levels of meat consumption.

Assessment of quality characteristics and bacterial community of modified atmosphere packaged chilled pork loins using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing analysis.

Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) is widely applied in packaging meat and meat products. While most studies had employed culture-dependent microbiological analyses or polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE), the recent application of high-throughput sequencing (HTS) has been effective and reliable in detecting the microbial consortium associated with food spoilage. Since MAP application is limited in China, applying HTS in assessing the microbial consortium of meat and meat products in the country becomes imperative. In this study, quality indexes and bacterial enumeration often used as spoilage indicators were employed to assess MAP fresh pork under chilled (4 °C) storage for 21 d. The results indicated that 70%O2/30%CO2 (Group A) retained more redness (a*) content, while 70%N2/30%CO2 (Group B) markedly reduced spoilage indicators compared to the control group. Notably, high-throughput sequencing indicated that Group B and 20%O2/60%N2/20%CO2 (Group C) inhibited the growth of abundant spoilers, Pseudomonas spp. and Brochothrix spp. Thus, MAP (Group B and C) has promising potential in inhibiting predominant meat spoilers during chilled storage. This study provides valuable information to food industries on the potential application of MAP to control meat spoilage in Chinese markets.