Ecological risk assessment of trace elements (TEs) pollution and human health risk exposure in agricultural soils used for saffron cultivation.

Contamination of farmland soils by trace elements (TEs) has become an international issue concerning food safety and human health risks. In the present research, the concentrations of TEs including cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe) in soils of 16 farmlands were determined in Gonabad, Iran. In addition, the human health risks due to exposure to the TEs from the soils were assessed. Moreover, the soil contamination likelihood was evaluated based on various contamination indices including contamination factor [Formula: see text]), enrichment factor (EF), geo-accumulation index (Igeo), and pollution load index (PLI) calculations. The soil mean concentrations for Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn and Fe ranges as 0.102, 6.968, 22.550, 29.263, 475.281, 34.234, 13.617, 54.482 and 19,683.6 mg/kg in farmland soils. The mean concentrations of the TEs decreased in the order of Fe > Mn > Zn > Ni > Cu > Cr > Pb > Co > As > Cd. Levels of all metals in this study were within the FAO/WHO and Iranian soil standards. The HQ values from investigated elements for adults and children in the studied farms were less than the limit of 1, indicating no health risks for the studied subpopulations. The results of the present research indicated no significant carcinogenic health hazards for both adults and children through ingestion, skin contact and inhalation exposure routes. [Formula: see text] values of Ni and Zn in 100% and 6.25% of farmlands were above 1, showing moderate contamination conditions. EF values of metals in farmlands were recorded as "no enrichment", "minimal enrichment" and "moderate enrichment" classes. Furthermore, it can be concluded that the all farms were uncontaminated except Ni (moderately contaminated) based on Igeo. This is an indication that the selected TEs in the agricultural soils have no appreciable threat to human health.

Safety Assessment and Pain Relief Properties of Saffron from Taliouine Region (Morocco).

Saffron is the most expensive spice in the world. In addition to its culinary utilization, this spice is used for medicinal purposes such as in pain management. In this study, the analgesic activity of Crocus sativus stigma extract (CSSE) was evaluated in rodents and its possible physiological mechanism was elucidated. The anti-nociceptive effect of CSSE was evaluated using three animal models (hot plate, writhing, and formalin tests). The analgesic pathways involved were assessed using various analgesia-mediating receptors antagonists. The oral administration of CSSE, up to 2000 mg/kg, caused no death or changes in the behavior or in the hematological and biochemical blood parameters of treated animals nor in the histological architecture of the animals' livers and kidneys. CSSE showed a central, dose-dependent, anti-nociceptive effect in response to thermal stimuli; and a peripheral analgesic effect in the test of contortions induced by acetic acid. The dual (central and peripheral) analgesic effect was confirmed by the formalin test. The anti-nociceptive activity of CSSE was totally or partially reversed by the co-administration of receptor antagonists, naloxone, atropine, haloperidol, yohimbine, and glibenclamide. CSSE influenced signal processing, by the modulation of the opioidergic, adrenergic, and muscarinic systems at the peripheral and central levels; and by regulation of the dopaminergic system and control of the opening of the ATP-sensitive K+ channels at the spinal level. The obtained data point to a multimodal mechanism of action for CSSE: An anti-inflammatory effect and a modulation, through different physiological pathways, of the electrical signal generated by the nociceptors. Further clinical trials are required to endorse the potential utilization of Moroccan saffron as a natural painkiller.

A Novel FTIR-Based Chemometric Solution for the Assessment of Saffron Adulteration with Non-Fresh Stigmas.

The development of fast, non-destructive, and green methods with adequate sensitivity for saffron authentication has important implications in the quality control of the entire production chain of this precious spice. In this context, the highly suitable sensitivity of a spectroscopic method coupled with chemometrics was verified. A total number of 334 samples were analyzed using attenuated-total-reflectance Fourier-transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy; the collected spectra were processed by partial-least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) to evaluate the feasibility of this study for the discrimination between compliant saffron (fresh samples produced in 2020) and saffron samples adulterated with non-fresh stigmas produced in 2018 and 2016. PLS-DA was able to classify the saffron samples in accordance with the aging time and to discriminate fresh samples from the samples adulterated with non-fresh (legally expired) stigmas, achieving 100% of both sensitivity and specificity in external prediction. Moreover, PLS regression was able to predict the adulteration level with sufficient accuracy (the root-mean-square error of prediction was approximately 3-5%). In summary, ATR-FTIR and chemometrics can be employed to highlight the illegal blending of fresh saffron with unsold stocks of expired saffron, which may be a common fraudulent practice not yet considered in the scientific literature.

Comparative assessment of immunomodulatory, proliferative, and antioxidant activities of crocin and crocetin on mesenchymal stem cells.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L) is a well-known spice with active pharmacologic components including crocin, crocetin, safranal, and picrocrocin. Similar to crocin/crocetin, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been shown to display immunomodulatory and antioxidant properties, which could be beneficial in treatment of various diseases. In the current study, we have evaluated the effects of crocin and crocetin on the functions of MSCs. We used the 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide assay to evaluate MSCs proliferation, and flow cytometry assay to measure the percentage of apoptotic MSCs and Tregs populations. Furthermore, we used the real-time polymerase chain reaction method to quantify messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Antioxidant assay was employed to quantify antioxidant parameters including nitric oxide and malondialdehyde levels besides superoxide dismutase activity. Our findings indicated that both crocin and crocetin at low concentrations (2.5 and 5 µM) exhibited significant effects on increasing MSCs viability and on protecting them against apoptosis-induced death. Furthermore, crocin and crocetin at low concentrations (2.5 and 5 µM) displayed a better antioxidant function. Moreover, increased Treg population was observed at lower doses. In addition, crocin/crocetin at low concentrations caused an elevation in mRNA expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines (transforming growth factor-ß, interleukin-10 [IL-10], and IL-4), while at higher doses (25 and 50 µM) they led to lowering inflammatory cytokines (IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-17, and interferon gamma). Altogether, both crocin and crocetin at lower concentrations exhibited more efficacies on MSCs with a better effect toward crocin. It seems that crocin and crocetin may be considered as complementary treatments for the patients who undergo MSCs transplantation.

Quality assessment of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) extracts via UHPLC-DAD-MS analysis and detection of adulteration using gardenia fruit extract (Gardenia jasminoides Ellis).

A new UHPLC-DAD-MS method based on a Core-Shell particles column was developed to realize the rapid separation of saffron stigma metabolites (Crocus sativus L.). A single separation of 35 compounds included cis and trans-crocetin esters (crocins), cis-crocetin, trans-crocetin, kaempferol derivatives, safranal, and picrocrocin from pure saffron stigmas. This method permitted the detection of 11 picrocrocin derivatives as the typical group of compounds from saffron as well as the detection of gardenia-specific compounds as typical adulterant markers. The metabolite concentration in a Standardized Saffron Extract (SSE) was determined using the method described herein and by comparison to the ISO3632 conventional method. The safranal content was 5-150 times lower than the value of 2% that was expected via ISO3632 analyses. Using the same Core-Shell separation, geniposide detection appeared to be a relevant approach for detecting the adulteration of saffron by using gardenia.

Weigh Biomaterials by Quantifying Species-specific DNA with Real-time PCR.

What's on the label is not what's in the bottle, from food products to herbal medicinal products (HMPs), economically-motivated biomaterials adulteration is a long-term problem affecting the food and drug industry. Accurate identification of the biomaterial ingredients in processed commodities is highly desirable. In this field, DNA-based techniques have proved to be powerful tools to overcome qualitative challenges. However, is it possible to quantify the weight of biological materials with PCR? Therefore, a basic scientific question needs to be answered: what's the relationship between DNA content and the mass of biological materials? Is DNA content directly proportional to the mass of biological materials as most of the researchers previously thought? In this study, we firstly found that there exists a linear relation between DNA contents and the weight of biomaterials indeed when the analytical practices are fully controlled. In this case, the mass of targeted biomaterials in the highly processed commercial products can also be calculated by quantifying the species-specific DNA through classic real-time PCR with a good reproducibility.

Energy analyses and greenhouse gas emissions assessment for saffron production cycle.

Population growth and world climate changes are putting high pressure on agri-food production systems. Exacerbating use of energy sources and expanding the environmental damaging symptoms are the results of these difficult situations. This study was conducted to determine the energy balance for saffron production cycle and investigate the corresponding greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in Iran. Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is one of the main spice that historically cultivated in Iran. Data were obtained from 127 randomly selected saffron growers using a face to face questionnaire technique. The results revealed that in 5 years of saffron production cycle, the overall input and output energy use were to be 163,912.09 and 184,868.28 MJ ha(-1), respectively. The highest-level of energy consumption belongs to seeds (23.7 %) followed by chemical fertilizers (23.4 %). Energy use efficiency, specific energy, net energy, and energy productivity of saffron production were 1.1, 13.4 MJ kg(-1), 20,956.2 MJ ha(-1), and 0.1 kg MJ(-1), respectively. The result shows that the cultivation of saffron emits 2325.5 kg CO2 eq. ha(-1) greenhouse gas, in which around 46.5 % belonged to electricity followed by chemical fertilizers. In addition the Cobb-Douglas production function was applied into EViews 7 software to define the functional relationship. The results of econometric model estimation showed that the impact of human labor, electricity, and water for irrigation on stigma, human labor, electricity, and seed on corm and also human labor and farmyard manure (FYM) on flower and leaf yield were found to be statistically significant. Sensitivity analysis results of the energy inputs demonstrated that the marginal physical productivity (MPP) worth of electricity energy was the highest for saffron stigma and corm, although saffron flower and leaf had more sensitivity on chemicals energy inputs. Moreover, MPP values of renewable and indirect energies were higher than non-renewable and direct energies, respectively.

Quality assessment of the saffron samples using second-order spectrophotometric data assisted by three-way chemometric methods via quantitative analysis of synthetic colorants in adulterated saffron.

Saffron is a valuable culinary spice that can be used not only for dyes and cooking, but also for many medical purposes. Due to its high price and restriction of its production, various fraud manners in its production have been growing. Addition of synthetic colorants to saffron is the most common way for adulteration. In this work, chemometric methods are proposed to resolve the three-dimensional absorbance spectra-pH data for simultaneous determination of the two colorants Tartrazin and Sunset yellow, in adulterated saffron. The rank deficiency in the concentration mode impaired the system. Therefore, to extirpate the ambiguity, which results from rank deficiency, three-way variation array V was generated by subtracting the first pH spectrum from each spectrum at each pH. This allows the extraction of extent reaction profile and mixture reaction spectral profiles, as well as the relative concentrations of the analytes.

The safety assessment of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) on sympathovagal balance and heart rate variability; a comparison with amiodarone.

Dry stigmas of the Crocus sativus L. (Saffron) are well known in world as a popular flavouring and therapeutic agent. The anxiolytic, antidepressant, anticonvulsant and antiarrhythmic effects of saffron suggest that it may affect the autonomic control of the heart. This study assessed its safety on cardiac sympathovagal balance and heart rate variability in rat. Experimental groups were control, Saf50, Saf100, Saf200 (received saffron at dosages of 50 and 100 and 200 mg/kg/d, orally, respectively) and Amio (received 30 mg/mL/kg/d of amiodarone, orally, for 7 days) groups. On day 8, the frequency domain and time domain indices of animals' electrocardiograms were calculated. The heart rate decreased and RR interval increased in Saf200 and Amio groups (P<.05 vs other groups). Square root of the mean squared differences of successive RR intervals enhanced in all treated groups, however, was only significant in Amio group (P<.05). The SD1/SD2 ratio was higher in Saf200 and Amio groups. Both low-frequency (LF) and high-frequency (HF) parameters were higher, and the LF/HF ratio was non-significantly lower in treated groups. The findings suggest that saffron not only has no harmful effect on activity of cardiac autonomic nervous system, but it may improve the stability of heart sympathovagal balance in normal rat.

Synthetic food colours in saffron solutions, saffron rice and saffron chicken from restaurants in Tehran, Iran.

Saffron solutions, saffron rice and saffron chicken samples were considered for synthetic colours as additives, which are forbidden according to Iranian national standards. Samples were taken from restaurants of three locations and analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography. Of the total 573 samples, 52% were positive for at least one colour. The most prevalent colours were Tartrazine, Quinoline Yellow and Sunset Yellow, with 44%, 9.1% and 8.4% of the samples testing positive for these colours, respectively. Carmoisine and Ponceau were both detected only in 0.5% of the positive samples and found only in saffron solution. In conclusion, synthetic food colours, especially Tartrazine should be regarded as a potential risk in saffron and its related food. Therefore, new attempts for food safety and quality should be undertaken to eliminate the use of these colours in restaurants.

Assessment of cytotoxic properties of safranal and nanoliposomal safranal in various cancer cell lines.

Saffron (Crocus sativus) is a widely used food additive used for its color and taste. It has been reported that saffron possesses significant in vivo and in vitro anti-tumor activity. In the present study, anti-tumor effects of safranal, the major aromatic compound in saffron, and its liposomal form were investigated. The role of apoptosis has also been explored in this toxicity. HeLa, MCF7 and L929 cell lines were cultured and exposed to safranal (0.01-3 mM) or liposomal safranal (0.04-0.32 mM). 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium (MTT) assay was performed to assess cytotoxicity. Apoptosis was evaluated by staining cells with propidium iodide and quantifying sub-Gl peak by flow cytometry. MTT assay revealed a significant and concentration-dependent cytotoxic effect of safranal on HeLa and MCF7 cell lines. Liposomal safranal showed enhanced effect compared to the safranal solution, as compared by their IC50 concentrations. Flow cytometry results revealed induction of apoptosis by safranal. It might be concluded that safranal could be involved in saffron-induced cell death in HeLa and MCF7 cells. Liposome encapsulation improved anti-tumor effect of safranal. Safranal and particularly its liposomal form could be investigated as promising chemotherapeutic agents in cancer treatment.

Investigation of the neuroprotective action of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) in aluminum-exposed adult mice through behavioral and neurobiochemical assessment.

In the present study, the possible reversal effects of saffron against established aluminum (Al)-toxicity in adult mice, were investigated. Control, Al-treated (50 mg AlCl(3)/kg/day diluted in the drinking water for 5 weeks) and Al+saffron (Al-treatment as previously plus 60 mg saffron extract/kg/day intraperitoneally for the last 6 days), groups of male Balb-c mice were used. We assessed learning/memory, the activity of acetylcholinesterase [AChE, salt-(SS)/detergent-soluble(DS) isoforms], butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE, SS/DS isoforms), monoamine oxidase (MAO-A, MAO-B), the levels of lipid peroxidation (MDA) and reduced glutathione (GSH), in whole brain and cerebellum. Brain Al was determined by atomic absorption spectrometry, while, for the first time, crocetin, the main active metabolite of saffron, was determined in brain after intraperitoneal saffron administration by HPLC. Al intake caused memory impairment, significant decrease of AChE and BuChE activity, activation of brain MAO isoforms but inhibition of cerebellar MAO-B, significant elevation of brain MDA and significant reduction of GSH content. Although saffron extract co-administration had no effect on cognitive performance of mice, it reversed significantly the Al-induced changes in MAO activity and the levels of MDA and GSH. AChE activity was further significantly decreased in cerebral tissues of Al+saffron group. The biochemical changes support the neuroprotective potential of saffron under toxicity.

A modified, economic, sensitive method for measuring total antioxidant capacities of human plasma and natural compounds using Indian saffron (Crocus sativus).

BACKGROUND: Free radicals are involved in various human diseases that can possibly be prevented by antioxidants. There are many but rather expensive methods to determine total antioxidant capacity of human plasma (for endogenous antioxidant levels) or plant extracts/natural compounds (for antioxidant potential in terms of radical inhibiting or scavenging properties). We describe a simple, fast and economical 'crocin assay' using the Indian spice saffron. METHODS: In crocin assay, the extent of bleaching of crocin, a carotenoid from saffron, by peroxyl radicals generated by thermal decomposition of azo-initiator was measured. We examined its applicability to clinical samples and plant extracts. RESULTS: The cost of Indian saffron is almost 38 times less per unit dry weight compared to the 'Sigma' saffron. Yet, it gives 26 times better yield of crocin than that from 'Sigma' saffron. It was also shown that Indian saffron is rich in crocin. The total antioxidant capacity (TAC) values of human plasma from normal, healthy individuals, using Sigma as well as Indian crocin, expressed in terms of 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid (Trolox) equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), were comparable. We have also demonstrated that crocin assay can be used for clinical samples such as plasmas from healthy and diabetic individuals. The antioxidant potentials, TEAC, of plant extracts and pure natural compounds by Indian and Sigma crocin assays were similar. Addition of uric acid to plasma induced a concentration-dependent response. The assay was compared to standard radical scavenging 1,1'-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay and was found to match well, showing better sensitivity and hence validates this assay for natural compounds and clinical samples. CONCLUSIONS: Development of crocin assay using the Indian saffron is economical and sensitive method for measurement of total antioxidant capacities from human plasma as well as natural compounds and plant extracts.