Analysis on the Development and Influence of National Fitness Environment on Youth Basketball Coordination and Mental Health.

In order to improve the basketball theory and provide theoretical and intellectual support for the scientific, mental health, and sustainable development of basketball, we propose to take the development dynamic mechanism of juvenile basketball as the research object and make a systematic and in-depth study on the dynamic mechanism, the cultivation of Chinese and foreign juvenile basketball reserve talents, and the dynamic dilemma and influencing factors of juvenile campus basketball development by using the methods of literature, questionnaire, and expert interview. A method of cultivating the ring tone of juvenile basketball is proposed. This method is based on Chan algorithm. When the target is close to each base station, the first estimation also needs an initial value to solve the initial solution estimation matrix. The method is also based on multivariate Taylor algorithm, taking into account the measured distance between the targets to be measured, so it will get some useful information, which will improve the positioning accuracy. The experimental results show that the accuracy of the algorithm used in this paper is more than 85%. However, the accuracy of rebounding and passing recognition and prediction is low. The recognition accuracy and prediction accuracy of the test set are slightly lower than that of the effective set, which shows that the performance of the target detection system model in this paper can be further improved through more significant training examples. It is proved that the algorithm based on Taylor ring can meet the needs of teenagers in the basketball coordination and mental health.

Eliminating buyer's remorse: An examination of the sunk cost fallacy in the National Hockey League draft.

The sunk cost effect describes the tendency to escalate one's commitment toward a certain endeavor, despite diminishing returns, as a consequence of irreversible resource expenditure that has already been made (Organ Behav Hum Decis Process. 1985;35:124). This effect has been observed in a number of professional sports leagues, wherein teams escalate their commitment toward players selected early in the draft, regardless of performance outcomes, due to large financial commitments invested in them (J Sports Econom. 2017;18:282; Adm Sci Q. 1995;40:474). This effect, however, has yet to be explored in the National Hockey League (NHL). The purpose of this study was to test for sunk cost effects in the NHL, by examining the relationship between draft order and playing time, while controlling for a myriad of confounding variables. Findings from our analyses provide support for the existence of this effect in the NHL, as first-round draftees were given significantly more playing time than their peers selected in the second round, regardless of injury, player relocation, penalties, or on-ice performance outcomes. We offer some plausible underlying mechanisms driving this effect. Furthermore, we suggest the observed effects have valuable implications for NHL talent development, given the importance of playing time on various aspects of expertise attainment.

Does the principle of investment diversification apply to the starting pitching staffs of major league baseball teams?

Financial advisors often emphasize asset diversification as a means of limiting losses from investments that perform unexpectedly poorly over a particular time period. One might expect that this perceived wisdom could apply in another high stakes arena-professional baseball-where player salaries comprise a substantial portion of a team's operational costs, year-to-year player performance is highly variable, and injuries can occur at any time. These attributes are particularly true in the case of the starting pitching staffs of professional baseball teams. Accordingly, this study analyzes starting pitcher performance and financial data from all Major League Baseball teams for the period 1985-2016 to determine whether the standard investment advice is applicable in this context, understanding that the time horizon for success for an investor and a baseball team may be distinct. A multiple logistic regression model of playoff qualification probability, based on realized pitcher performance, measures of luck, and starting pitcher staff salary diversification is used to address this question. A further stratification is conducted to determine whether there are differences in strategy for teams with allocated financial resources that are above or below league average. We find that teams with above average resources increase their post-season qualification probability by focusing their salary funds on a relative few starting pitchers rather than diversifying that investment across the staff. Second, we find that pitcher performance must align with that investment in order for the team to have a high qualification probability. Third, the influence of luck is not negligible, but those teams that allocate more overall funds to their pitching are more resilient to bad luck. Thus, poorly resourced teams, who are generally unable to bid for pitchers at the highest salary levels, must adopt alternative strategies to maintain their competitiveness.

Training volume and amateur cyclists' health: a six-month follow-up from coinciding with a high-demand cycling event.

This study aimed to analyse the longitudinal association of amateur cycling training volume with health by comparing the proximity of participation in a high-demand cycling event. Variations in cycling training volume, behavioural cardiometabolic risk factors, and physical and psychosocial health were examined. Cyclists decreased their training volume by approximately 40% and their total physical activity volumes by approximately 20%, while controls maintained (~5%). A time*group interaction was found for men's physical conditioning, body mass index and anxiety and, independent of gender, for behavioural cardiometabolic risk factors. Variation in cycling training volume was positively correlated with variation in physical conditioning and total physical activity and negatively correlated with variation in body mass index. The high level of cycling training volume developed at the time coinciding with a high demand cycling event predisposes to better physical health and behavioural cardiometabolic risk factors, without negatively affect psychosocial health, compared with six month later.

"It takes a village": the sources and types of support in development of male cricket players.

OBJECTIVES: To explore the different types of support (e.g., financial, informational) and support providers (e.g., fathers, siblings) in the development of male cricket players across different levels of skill expertise. METHODS: A quantitative questionnaire (developed as a part of a broader Australian Research Council Linkage project) assessing support providers and types of support accessed by players was distributed to participants through involvement with a national sporting organisation. Descriptive trends across support types for each provider were explored for the total cohort of athletes, n=1383 (as relative percentages), and community and elite differences were explored using chi-squared analyses (p<0.05). RESULTS: Mothers and fathers were primary providers of financial and emotional support (>80%), mentors offered meaningful sport-specific informational and technical (or coaching related) support, and siblings and peers played an integral development role in acting as fellow participants for practice and play. Access to coaching emerged as a dominant point of difference between community and elite players consistently across all support providers (p<0.05). Mentors and siblings also featured more frequently for elite players across broader ranges of support factors (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: Regardless of level of skill expertise, there were unique context-specific roles that different providers played in supporting cricket players. When differentiating between levels of expertise, elite players drew on more "contact" points to assist them in accessing the right type of coaching. Mentors and siblings also featured more frequently for elite players across a broader range of support factors. Taken together, these findings show that elite players are distinguished in their reliance on multiple components within a complex family system, bolstered by additional significant others. This work further underscores the previously limited exploration of social networks in athlete development, highlighting avenues for continued enquiry and action in sport development systems.

Nationality and sociocultural factors influence athlete development and sport outcomes: Perspectives from United States and Austrian youth alpine ski racing.

Geographical regions possess distinct sporting cultures that can influence athletic development from a young age. The United States (US) and Austria both produce elite alpine ski racers, yet have distinct sport structures (i.e., funding, skiing prominence). In this exploratory study, we investigated sport outcomes and psychological profiles in adolescent alpine ski racers attending skill development academies in the US (N= 169) and Austria (N= 209). Sport participation and psychological questionnaires (mental toughness, perfectionism, grit, coping, burnout) were administered to athletes. In Austria, athletes participated in fewer extracurricular sports, began competing and training younger, and accumulated less practice hours than athletes in the US. Athletes in the US reported greater burnout than athletes in Austria. Finally, in the US, women accumulated more practice hours and experienced more parental pressure than men, while men accumulated more practice hours in Austria. Austria's skiing-centric sport culture may encourage athletes to fully immerse into the sport, contributing to positive psychological outcomes. Reduced sport opportunities in the US beyond educational institutions may pressure athletes to practice more to ensure continued competitive skiing. Stressors for sport participation will be unique to gender in each country though, given their implicit gender stigmas for sport participation.

Strengthening the assessment of self-talk in sports through a multi-method approach.

Although self-talk during competitive sports is common and predictive of athletes' motivation, experiences, and performance, it is difficult to accurately assess self-talk. An important, yet underexplored, next step in the assessment of self-talk is to rely on a multi-method approach. The present study sought to examine whether tennis players' self-talk assessed either via self-reports or via a live-recorded procedure would relate to each other. Competitive tennis players (N = 120; Mage  = 25.22; SDage  = 9.82) were asked to perform multiple tennis exercises while verbalizing their thoughts, which were audio-recorded and subsequently coded. Prior to exercise engagement, they indicated their fear of failure, while, after exercise engagement, they reported on their experienced pressure and self-talk using questionnaires. There was substantial correspondence between the coded and self-reported measure, allowing the estimation of a latent factor representing a multi-method assessment of self-talk. Moreover, in a theory-consistent way, both latent factors representing negative and positive self-talk were related to a hypothesized antecedent (ie, fear of failure), with negative self-talk also relating to a hypothesized consequence (ie, perceived pressure). Overall, the present study shows that athletes' self-talk can be measured reliably through different methods. Guidelines for the assessment of self-talk in future research are provided.

Dynamics of cognitive performance at rest and after exhaustive exercise in top-three world-ranked mixed martial arts athletes: a series of case studies.

Cognitive performance plays a key role in sports performance, especially in combat sports such as mixed martial arts (MMA). Studies with active and sedentary individuals showed either no change or decreased cognitive performance during or immediately after exercise. However, it is possible that elite MMA athletes would present preserved/improved cognitive performance after exhaustive exercise. In this series of cases studies, we tested this hypothesis by submitting three elite MMA athletes from the Bellator MMA® and UFC® to a cognitive assessment before, immediately after and 15 min after exhaustive exercise. A modified computerized version of the Stroop Test was used to test cognitive inhibition performance, from which reaction time (RT) and accuracy were obtained. The athletes performed an incremental exercise on a cycle simulator until volitional exhaustion. Immediately after exercise RT improved consistently in all three athletes (-6.5%; -8.0%; -15.0%), while accuracy presented a small increase (2.6%), decreases (-3.8%) or no change. Fifteen minutes after exercise, RT remained improved in two athletes (-9.1% and -15.5) or slightly increased (0.4%), while accuracy presented small increase in all athletes (0.5%; 1.3%; 2.1%) compared to pre-exercise. This result indicates that elite MMA athletes may present improved cognitive performance immediately after exhaustive exercise, which suggests that cognitive-motor training for MMA should be considered when planning a training program.

You don't need to administer a placebo to elicit a placebo effect: Social factors trigger neurobiological pathways to enhance sports performance.

The placebo effect is traditionally viewed as a positive outcome resulting from a person's belief that an inert substance is in fact an active drug. In this context, it is often viewed as an intrapsychic phenomenon. However, most placebo effects reported in scientific research result from social interactions. These might be explicit, such as the description and administration of a treatment by a practitioner, or less explicit, for example, the recipient's perceptions of the practitioner's credibility, expertise, or confidence. On this basis, placebo effects are arguably social in origin. Many phenomena in sport are likewise social in origin, from the facilitation effects of a home field crowd or a cohesive team, to anxiety induced by an expert opponent or perceived underperformance. Such social effects have been the subject of research not only in social psychology, but also in experimental physiology. Emergent research in cognitive and evolutionary anthropology suggests that these social effects can be examined as a form of placebo effect. This suggestion is not a speculative position predicated on social and placebo effects sharing similar environmental cues and outcomes, but one based on a growing database indicating that drug, placebo, and social effects operate via common neurobiological mechanisms. In this paper, we examine the theoretical and empirical overlap between placebo and social effects and describe emergent research reporting specific brain pathways activated by socio-environmental cues as well as by drugs and placebos. We do so from three perspectives: the competitor, the teammate, the researcher.

Thinking about your running movement makes you less efficient: attentional focus effects on running economy and kinematics.

A number of studies have shown that attentional focus instructions can effect running economy. This study assessed spiroergometry, as well as running kinematics as a possible mechanism to explain these effects. Twelve runners had to focus their attention on either their running movement, their breathing or on a video while running on a treadmill at a set, submaximum speed. Spiroergometry and running kinematics were measured. Results revealed worse running economy in both internal focus conditions (breathing and movement) compared to the external focus condition (video), replicating previous findings. In addition, vertical oscillation during the running movement was elevated in the movement compared to the video condition, indicating a less efficient running style. No changes in kinematics were found for the breathing compared to the video condition. Therefore, consciously focusing on the running movement moves runners away from their optimised running pattern and leads to detriments in economy. The decreases in running economy in the breathing condition can be better explained by changes in breathing patterns.

The effect of anxiety on anticipation, allocation of attentional resources, and visual search behaviours.

Successful sports performance requires athletes to be able to mediate any detrimental effects of anxiety whilst being able to complete tasks simultaneously. In this study, we examine how skill level influences the ability to mediate the effects of anxiety on anticipation performance and the capacity to allocate attentional resources to concurrent tasks. We use a counterbalanced, repeated measures design that required expert and novice badminton players to complete a film-based anticipation test in which they predicted serve direction under high- and low-anxiety conditions. On selected trials, participants completed an auditory secondary task. Visual search data were recorded and the Mental Readiness Form v-3 was used to measure cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-confidence. The Rating Scale of Mental Effort was used to measure mental effort. The expert players outperformed their novice counterparts on the anticipation task across both anxiety conditions, with both groups anticipation performance deteriorating under high- compared to low-anxiety. This decrease across anxiety conditions was significantly greater in the novice compared to the expert group. High-anxiety resulted in a shorter final visual fixation duration for both groups when compared to low-anxiety. Anxiety had a negative impact on secondary task performance for the novice, but not the expert group. Our findings suggest that expert athletes more effectively allocated attentional resources during performance under high-anxiety conditions. In contrast, novice athletes used more attentional resources when completing the primary task and, therefore, were unable to maintain secondary task performance under high-anxiety.

Can an early perceptuo-motor skills assessment predict future performance in youth table tennis players? An observational study (1998-2013).

This study intended to investigate the capability of the 4 test items "sprint", "agility", "speed while dribbling" and "throwing a ball" of the Dutch perceptuo-motor skills assessment used at the age of 7-10 years to predict table tennis performance (U13, U15 and U18) in an observational study. Data of 1191 young table tennis players, collected from 1998 to 2013, were analysed in univariable and multivariable logistic and linear regression models. The test items "sprint" and "throwing a ball" showed to be significant predictors for table tennis performance outcomes in boys (P < 0.05). For girls, besides these test items also "speed while dribbling" had a significant contribution (P < 0.05). Since the accuracies of the models were low, it is advised to include other determinants to enhance the predictive value of a model for table tennis performance. Nevertheless, it can be concluded that a perceptuo-motor skills assessment might improve the effectiveness of talent programmes in table tennis as an additional method to objectively estimate a youth players' potential. Future research focusing on the inclusion of test items specifically assessing eye hand coordination and other domains, for example, the psychological and the environmental domain, related to table tennis performance are recommended.

Measuring recovery: An adapted Brief Assessment of Mood (BAM+) compared to biochemical and power output alterations.

OBJECTIVES: Biochemical (e.g. creatine kinase (CK)) and neuromuscular (e.g. peak power output (PPO)) markers of recovery are expensive and require specialist equipment. Perceptual measures are an effective alternative, yet most validated scales are too long for daily use. DESIGN: This study utilises a longitudinal multi-level design to test an adapted Brief Assessment of Mood (BAM+), with four extra items and a 100mm visual analogue scale to measure recovery. METHODS: Elite under-21 academy soccer players (N=11) were monitored across five games with data (BAM+, CK and PPO) collected for each game at 24h pre, 24h and 48h post-match. Match activity data for each participant was also collected using GPS monitors on players. RESULTS: BAM+, CK and PPO had significant (p<.05) linear and quadratic growth curves across time and games that matched the known time reports of fatigue and recovery. Multi-level linear modelling (MLM) with random intercepts for 'participant' and 'game' indicated only CK significantly contributed to the variance of BAM+ scores (p<.05). Significant correlations (p<.01) were found between changes in BAM+ scores from baseline at 24 and 48h post-match for total distance covered per minute, high intensity distance covered per minute, and total number of sprints per minute. CONCLUSIONS: Visual and inferential results indicate that the BAM+ appears effective for monitoring longitudinal recovery cycles in elite level athletes. Future research is needed to confirm both the scales reliability and validity.

Significado de ser jogador de vôlei em fase de transição de carreira / Meaning to be volleyball player in career transition phase / Significado de ser jugador de voleibol en proceso de transición de carrera

O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o significado atribuído a ser jogador de voleibol por atletas da categoria sub 19 em processo de transição de carreira. Foram avaliados dezesseis jogadores do sexo masculino, idades entre 17 e 18 anos, por meio de dados biográficos, questões fechadas e da pergunta geradora: "O que significa para você ser um jogador de vôlei? A análise dos discursos foi feita através dos procedimentos propostos por Miles e Huberman (2004). Foram obtidas quatro categorias de respostas: habilidades psicoemocionais e comportamentais; emoções no esporte; reconhecimento e retorno financeiro; competências como atleta/jogador. Segundo estes atletas, o significado do esporte está especialmente na paixão pela prática, mas também no aperfeiçoamento da tática e da técnica, no desenvolvimento de habilidades psicoemocionais e de comportamento, no reconhecimento profissional e pouco no retorno financeiro. Compreender o significado de ser jogador pode ser a chave para a elaboração de um plano de preparação psicológica que vise dar suporte às necessidades neste momento de escolha profissional.

The objective of this study is to assess the meaning of being that a volleyball player for the under-19 players who are experiencing a transition in their in career. Sixteen male players aged 17 and 18 were evaluated, by being asked the triggering question "What does being a volleyball player mean to you?" The analysis of the discourses was carried out according to the procedures recommended by Miles & Huberman (2004). Four response categories resulted: psychoemotional and behavioral skills, emotions in sport, recognition and financial return, skills as an athlete/player. The athletes showed that the meaning of sport lies especially in the passion for practice, but also, in the improving of their tactics and techniques, in the development of psychoemotional and behavioral skills, in the professional recognition and, to a lesser degree, in the financial aspect. Most athletes state they intend to continue in the juvenile sports categories, therefore, understanding the meaning of this activity in their life can be the key to the elaboration of a plan of psychological preparation whose aim is to provide support to their needs in this moment of professional choice.

El objeto de este estudio fue el de evaluar el significado de ser jugador de voleibol para jugadores de categoría sub-19 en proceso de transición de carrera.Se evaluaron dieciséis jugadores del sexo masculino, con edades entre 17 y 18 años, por medio de una pregunta generadora "¿Qué significa para ti el hecho de ser un jugador de vóleibol?" El análisis de los discursos se realizó según los procedimientos recomendados por Miles & Huberman (2004). Fueron obtenidas cuatro categorías de respuestas: habilidades psicoemocionales y comportamentales, emociones en el deporte, reconocimiento y retorno financiero, competencias como atleta/jugador. Los atletas han demostrado que el significado del deporte está en el perfeccionamiento de la táctica y de la técnica, en el desarrollo de habilidades psicoemocionales y de comportamiento, en el reconocimiento profesional y poco en el aspecto financiero. La mayoría de los atletas afirma que pretende permanecer en el deporte juvenil; por lo tanto, comprender qué significa esta actividad en sus vidas puede ser la llave para elaboración de un plan de preparación psicológica, con vistas a dar soporte a sus necesidades en este momento de elección profesional.

Psychological skills training and a mindfulness-based intervention to enhance functional athletic performance: design of a randomized controlled trial using ambulatory assessment.

BACKGROUND: Struggling to deliver performance in competitions is one of the main reasons why athletes seek the advice of sport psychologists. Psychologists apply a variety of intervention techniques, many of which are not evidence-based. Evidence-based techniques promote quality management and could help athletes, for example, to increase and maintain functional athletic behavior in competitions/games (i.e., being focused on task relevant cues and executing movements and actions in high quality). However, well-designed trials investigating the effectiveness of sport psychological interventions for performance enhancement are scarce. The planed study is founded by the Swiss National Science Foundation and examines the effectiveness of two interventions with elite and sub-elite athletes. A psychological skills training (PST) and a mindfulness-based intervention (MI), administered as group-program, will be compared to a waiting-list control group concerning how they enhance functional athletic behavior - which is a prerequisite for optimal performance. Furthermore, we will investigate underlying mechanisms (mediators) and moderators (e.g., task difficulty, individual characteristics, intervention-expectancy and intervention-integrity). METHODS/DESIGN: The presented trial uses a randomized controlled design with three groups, comparing PST, MI and a waiting list control condition. Both group interventions will last 5 weeks, consist of four 2 h sessions and will be administered by a trained sport psychologist. Primary outcome is functional athletic behavior assessed using ambulatory assessment in a competition/game. As secondary outcomes competition anxiety, cognitive interference and negative outcome expectations will be assessed. Assessments are held at pre- and post-intervention as well as at 2 months follow up. The study has been approved by the ethical committee of the Swiss Federal Institute of Sport. DISCUSSION: Both PST and MI are expected to help improve functional behavior in athletes. By examining potential mechanisms of change and moderators of outcome we will not only be able to answer the question whether the interventions work, but also how, under what conditions, and for whom. This study may also fill a gap in sport psychology research, considering the current lack of randomized controlled trials. In the future, researchers could use the presented study protocol as template to investigate similar topics in sport psychology. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN11147748 , date of registration: 11 July 2016.

Approach to the Underperforming Athlete.

Children and adolescents who participate in intense sports training may face physical and psychologic stresses. The pediatric health care provider can play an important role in monitoring an athlete's preparation by obtaining a proper sports history, assessing sleep hygiene, discussing nutrition and hydration guidelines, and evaluating physiologic causes of fatigue. Educating parents and athletes on the potential risks of high-intensity training, inadequate rest and sleep, and a poor diet may improve the athlete's performance and prevent symptoms of overtraining syndrome. Infectious mononucleosis must also be considered a cause of fatigue among adolescents. The signs and symptoms of overtraining and burnout are discussed in this article.

A Negative Life Event Impairs Psychosocial Stress, Recovery and Running Economy of Runners.

The purpose was to investigate how a negative life event (NLE) affects perceived psychosocial stress, recovery and running economy (RE). Competitive runners were monitored in a prospective non-experimental cohort study over one full training season in which they experienced the same unplanned severe NLE. 16 runners recorded stress and recovery scores (RESTQ-Sport) every week. The average scores over 3 weeks before the NLE were used as a baseline and were compared to scores during the week of the NLE (week 0), week 1 and week 2. 7 runners completed a submaximal treadmill test before and after the NLE. Repeated measures ANOVAs revealed that most scores on general stress scales were increased in week 0 and 1. Of the general recovery scales, "general well-being" was decreased in week 0 and 1, "social" and "physical recovery" were decreased in week 0. No changes in the sport-specific stress scales were found. However, 2 of the sport-specific recovery scales were decreased in week 0. An impaired RE was shown 3 weeks after the NLE. Therefore, it is important to know what is going on in an athlete's life, because stressful life events alter RE after the stress and recovery already returned to normal levels.

Measuring Recovery in Elite Rugby Players: The Brief Assessment of Mood, Endocrine Changes, and Power.

PURPOSE: There is demand in applied sport settings to measure recovery briefly and accurately. Research indicates mood disturbance as the strongest psychological predictor of mental and physical recovery. The Brief Assessment of Mood (BAM) is a shortened version of the Profile of Mood States that can be completed in less than 30 s. The purpose of this study was to examine the BAM as a quick measure of mood in relation to recovery status in elite rugby players alongside established physiological markers of recovery. METHOD: Using elite rugby union players (N = 12), this study examined the utility of BAM as an indicator of mental and physical recovery in elite athletes by exploring pattern change in mood disturbance, energy index, power output, cortisol, and testosterone 36 hr before and 12 hr, 36 hr, and 60 hr after a competitive rugby match. RESULTS: Repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance indicated significant changes in all variables across the 4 time points (p < .05, η(2) range = .20-.48), concurrent with previous study findings. Although visual inspection of the graphs indicated that the pattern of change for mood disturbance and energy index mapped changes in all physiological variables, only a low correlation was observed for power output (r = - .34). CONCLUSIONS: Although BAM scores changed significantly over time in accordance with the hypotheses, further testing is required to confirm the utility of the BAM as a measure of recovery. The results indicate that the BAM could be used as 1 indicator of recovery status alongside other measures.

A Review of Factors Influencing Athletes' Food Choices.

Athletes make food choices on a daily basis that can affect both health and performance. A well planned nutrition strategy that includes the careful timing and selection of appropriate foods and fluids helps to maximize training adaptations and, thus, should be an integral part of the athlete's training programme. Factors that motivate food selection include taste, convenience, nutrition knowledge and beliefs. Food choice is also influenced by physiological, social, psychological and economic factors and varies both within and between individuals and populations. This review highlights the multidimensional nature of food choice and the depth of previous research investigating eating behaviours. Despite numerous studies with general populations, little exploration has been carried out with athletes, yet the energy demands of sport typically require individuals to make more frequent and/or appropriate food choices. While factors that are important to general populations also apply to athletes, it seems likely, given the competitive demands of sport, that performance would be an important factor influencing food choice. It is unclear if athletes place the same degree of importance on these factors or how food choice is influenced by involvement in sport. There is a clear need for further research exploring the food choice motives of athletes, preferably in conjunction with research investigating dietary intake to establish if intent translates into practice.