The use of the Core Yellow Flags Index for the assessment of psychosocial distress in patients undergoing surgery of the cervical spine.

BACKGROUND: Psychosocial distress (the presence of yellow flags) has been linked to poor outcomes in spine surgery. The Core Yellow Flags Index (CYFI), a short instrument assessing the 4 main yellow flags, was developed for use in patients undergoing lumbar spine surgery. This study evaluated its ability to predict outcome in patients undergoing cervical spine surgery. METHODS: Patients with degenerative spinal disorders (excluding myelopathy) operated in one centre, from 2015 to 2019, were asked to complete the CYFI at baseline and the Core Outcome Measures Index (COMI) at baseline and 3 and 12 months after surgery. The relationship between CYFI and COMI scores at baseline as well as the predictive ability of the CYFI on the COMI follow-up scores were tested using structural equation modelling. RESULTS: From 731 eligible patients, 547 (61.0 ± 12.5 years; 57.2% female) completed forms at all three timepoints. On a cross-sectional basis, preoperative CYFI and COMI scores were highly correlated (ß = 0.54, in men and 0.51 in women; each p < 0.001). CYFI added significantly and independently to the prediction of COMI at 3 months' FU in men (ß = 0.36) and 12 months' FU in men and women (both ß = 0.20) (all p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: The CYFI had a low to moderate but significant and independent association with cervical spine surgery outcomes. Implementing the CYFI in the preoperative workup of these patients could help refine outcome predictions and better manage patient expectations.

Effect of a Biopsychosocial Intervention or Postural Therapy on Disability and Health Care Spending Among Patients With Acute and Subacute Spine Pain: The SPINE CARE Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: Low back and neck pain are often self-limited, but health care spending remains high. Objective: To evaluate the effects of 2 interventions that emphasize noninvasive care for spine pain. Design, Setting, and Participants: Pragmatic, cluster, randomized clinical trial conducted at 33 centers in the US that enrolled 2971 participants with neck or back pain of 3 months' duration or less (enrollment, June 2017 to March 2020; final follow-up, March 2021). Interventions: Participants were randomized at the clinic-level to (1) usual care (n = 992); (2) a risk-stratified, multidisciplinary intervention (the identify, coordinate, and enhance [ICE] care model that combines physical therapy, health coach counseling, and consultation from a specialist in pain medicine or rehabilitation) (n = 829); or (3) individualized postural therapy (IPT), a postural therapy approach that combines physical therapy with building self-efficacy and self-management (n = 1150). Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcomes were change in Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) score at 3 months (range, 0 [best] to 100 [worst]; minimal clinically important difference, 6) and spine-related health care spending at 1 year. A 2-sided significance threshold of .025 was used to define statistical significance. Results: Among 2971 participants randomized (mean age, 51.7 years; 1792 women [60.3%]), 2733 (92%) finished the trial. Between baseline and 3-month follow-up, mean ODI scores changed from 31.2 to 15.4 for ICE, from 29.3 to 15.4 for IPT, and from 28.9 to 19.5 for usual care. At 3-month follow-up, absolute differences compared with usual care were -5.8 (95% CI, -7.7 to -3.9; P < .001) for ICE and -4.3 (95% CI, -5.9 to -2.6; P < .001) for IPT. Mean 12-month spending was $1448, $2528, and $1587 in the ICE, IPT, and usual care groups, respectively. Differences in spending compared with usual care were -$139 (risk ratio, 0.93 [95% CI, 0.87 to 0.997]; P = .04) for ICE and $941 (risk ratio, 1.40 [95% CI, 1.35 to 1.45]; P < .001) for IPT. Conclusions and Relevance: Among patients with acute or subacute spine pain, a multidisciplinary biopsychosocial intervention or an individualized postural therapy intervention, each compared with usual care, resulted in small but statistically significant reductions in pain-related disability at 3 months. However, compared with usual care, the biopsychosocial intervention resulted in no significant difference in spine-related health care spending and the postural therapy intervention resulted in significantly greater spine-related health care spending at 1 year. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03083886.

Assessment of Construct Validity of the Oswestry Disability Index and the Scoliosis Research Society-30 Questionnaire (SRS-30) in Patients With Degenerative Spinal Disease.

STUDY DESIGN: Observational cohort study. OBJECTIVES: To measure and compare the structural validity of the Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) and the Scoliosis Research Society-30 (SRS-30) questionnaire in an adult population with prolonged degenerative thoracolumbar disease. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: The ODI and the SRS-30 are commonly used patient-reported outcome instruments to assess back-specific disability and symptoms related to scoliosis. Still, these instruments have not been validated for degenerative spinal disease with different stages of deformity. METHODS: Altogether, 637 consecutive adult patients with degenerative spinal pathologies were included. The patients completed the ODI (version 2.0), the 23 preoperative items of the SRS-30, a general health survey, the Kasari Frequency Intensity Time (FIT) index, the Depression Scale (DEPS), the RAND-36, and visual analog scales for leg and back pain instruments. Psychometric statistical and illustrative analyses were conducted. Deformity groups were analyzed to assess how well the two instruments reflect deformity-related back problems. RESULTS: Both instruments reflected good coverage and targeting. Correlation between the ODI and the SRS-30 was high (r = 0.70; p < .001). Both measures could distinguish between different general health states. The SRS-30 strongly reflected mental state and social well-being. The SRS-30 was less sensitive for pain and function. Furthermore, the principal component of pain/function explained more variance in the SRS-30 compared with the ODI score. The ODI was more sensitive for variance of disability among different age and deformity groups. CONCLUSIONS: Both the ODI and the the SRS-30 provide valid scores in evaluating health-related quality of life and/or level of disability among patients with prolonged degenerative thoracolumbar disease. The ODI has slightly higher correlation with physical functioning. The SRS-30 seems to be better when evaluating the emotional and psychological functions. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III.

Development of a short scale for assessing economic environmental aspects in patients with spinal diseases using Rasch analysis.

BACKGROUND: Economic environmental factors represent important barriers to participation and have deleterious effects on quality of life (QOL) in persons with spinal diseases (SpD). While economic factors are anchored in the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health, their influence on QOL and participation from patients' perspectives is an infrequent focus of research. The aim of the present research is to calibrate a culturally adapted Rasch-based questionnaire assessing economic QOL in patients with SpD. METHODS: The 11-items of the German economic-QOL-scale were answered by 325 patients with SpD on a four-point Likert-scale. Fit to the Rasch measurement model was investigated by testing for stochastic ordering of the items, unidimensionality, local independence, and differential item functioning (DIF). RESULTS: After adjusting for local dependency, fit to the Rasch model was achieved with a non-significant item-trait interaction (chi-squaredf = 20 = 34.8, p = 0.021). The person separation reliability equaled 0.88, the scale was free from age- or gender-related DIF, and unidimensionality could be verified. CONCLUSIONS: The Rasch-based German version of the economic-QOL-scale represents a suitable instrument to investigate the influences of economic factors on patients' QOL at a group and individual level. It can be easily applied in research and practice and may be administered quickly in combination with other instruments. The short test duration implies a low test burden for patients and a minimum of time expenditure by clinicians when evaluating the results.

Guideline update for the performance of fusion procedures for degenerative disease of the lumbar spine. Part 2: assessment of functional outcome following lumbar fusion.

Assessment of functional patient-reported outcome following lumbar spinal fusion continues to be essential for comparing the effectiveness of different treatments for patients presenting with degenerative disease of the lumbar spine. When assessing functional outcome in patients being treated with lumbar spinal fusion, a reliable, valid, and responsive outcomes instrument such as the Oswestry Disability Index should be used. The SF-36 and the SF-12 have emerged as dominant measures of general health-related quality of life. Research has established the minimum clinically important difference for major functional outcomes measures, and this should be considered when assessing clinical outcome. The results of recent studies suggest that a patient's pretreatment psychological state is a major independent variable that affects the ability to detect change in functional outcome.

SF-6D values stratified by specific diagnostic indication.

STUDY DESIGN: Longitudinal cohort. OBJECTIVE: To present Oswestry Disability Index scores and SF-6D utility values among patients with different diagnostic etiologies who underwent fusion surgery. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Several studies have increased our understanding of health-related quality-of-life measures in patients with low back pain. With rising health care costs, cost-utility analysis is increasingly used by decision makers. Thus, clinicians and researchers need to understand the psychometrics and clinical importance of health state utility values in patients with spine disorders. METHODS: A total of 1104 patients who had decompression and lumbar fusion with complete data to compute the SF-6D score at baseline and 2-year follow-up were identified. Primary surgical cases were classified as disc pathology (n = 200), spondylolisthesis (n = 288), instability (n = 43), stenosis (n = 134), or scoliosis (n = 44). Revision cases were classified as nonunion (n = 94), adjacent-level degeneration (n = 98), or postdiscectomy revision (n = 203). Baseline SF-6D and change in SF-6D scores at 2 years were compared among the groups as well as primary versus revision cases. RESULTS: There were 674 women and 430 men. The mean age at surgery was 56.65 ± 12.7 years. There were 220 (19.9%) smokers. The worst mean baseline SF-6D score was in patients with nonunion (0.492), followed by disc pathology (0.493), adjacent-level degeneration (0.494), postdiscectomy revision (0.499), stenosis (0.504), instability (0.512), spondylolisthesis (0.520), and scoliosis (0.530). There was a statistically significant difference in baseline SF-6D score among the different groups (P = 0.002). The mean change in SF-6D score was greatest in patients with stenosis (0.088), followed by spondylolisthesis (0.085), scoliosis (0.076), disc pathology (0.076), instability (0.073), postdiscectomy revision (0.070), adjacent-level degeneration (0.066), and nonunion (0.050). There was no statistically significant difference in change in SF-6D score among the different groups (P = 0.096). However, revision cases had statistically significantly smaller gains in SF-6D score (0.064) than primary cases (0.082, P = 0.012). CONCLUSION: Patients with lumbar degenerative disorders have health state values similar to patients with chronic renal disease, Crohn's disease, or coronary artery disease. Health state values of patients with different indications for surgery differ at baseline and after surgery. Revision cases have worse baseline SF-6D scores and less improvement in scores at 2 years after surgery than primary cases. Further studies are needed to gain a greater understanding of health state utility values in patients with lumbar degenerative disorders.

Early retirement and the financial assets of individuals with back problems.

This paper quantifies the relationship between early retirement due to back problems and wealth, and contributes to a more complete picture of the full costs associated with back problems. The output data set of the microsimulation model Health&WealthMOD was analysed. Health&WealthMOD was specifically designed to measure the economic impacts of ill health on Australian workers aged 45-64 years. People aged 45-64 years who are out of the labour force due to back problems have significantly less chance of having any accumulated wealth. While almost all individuals who are in full-time employment with no chronic health condition have some wealth accumulated, a significantly smaller proportion (89%) of those who have retired early due to back problems do. Of those who have retired early due to back problems who do have some wealth, on average the total value of this wealth is 87% less (95% CI: -90 to -84%) than the total value of wealth accumulated by those who have remained in full-time employment with no health condition controlling for age, sex and education. The financial burden placed on those retiring early due to back problems is likely to cause financial stress in the future, as not only have retired individuals lost an income stream from paid employment, but they also have little or no wealth to draw upon. Preventing early retirement due to back problems will increase the time individuals will have to amass savings to finance their retirement and to protect against financial shocks.

Trends in health care expenditures, utilization, and health status among US adults with spine problems, 1997-2006.

STUDY DESIGN: Analysis of nationally representative survey data for spine-related health care expenditures, utilization and self-reported health status. OBJECTIVE: To study trends from 1997 to 2006 in per-user expenditures for spine-related inpatient, outpatient, pharmacy, and emergency services; and to compare these trends to changes in health status. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Although prior work has shown overall spine-related expenditures accounted for $86 billion in 2005, increasing 65% since 1997, the study did not report per-user expenditures. Understanding population-level per-user expenditure for specific services relative to changes in the health status may help assess the value of these services. METHODS: We analyzed data from the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey, a multistage survey sample designed to produce unbiased national estimates of health care utilization and expenditure. Spine-related hospitalizations, outpatient visits, prescription medications and emergency department visits were identified using ICD-9-CM diagnosis codes. Regression analyses controlling for age, sex, comorbidity, and time (years) were used to examine trends from 1997 to 2006 in inflation-adjusted per-user expenditures, and utilization, and self-reported health status. RESULTS: An average of 1774 respondents with spine problems was surveyed per year; the proportion suggested an increase in the number of people who sought treatment for spine problems in the United States from 14.8 million in 1997 to 21.9 million in 2006. From 1997 to 2006, the mean adjusted per-user expenditures were the largest component of increasing total costs for inpatient hospitalizations, prescription medications, andemergency department visits, increasing 37% (from $13,040 in 1997 to $17,909 in 2006), 139% (from $166 to $397), and 84% (from $81 to $149), respectively. A 49% increase in the number of patients seeking spine-related care (from 12.2 million in 1997 to 18.2 million in 2006) was the largest contributing factor to increased outpatient expenditures. Population measures of mental health and work, social, and physical limitations worsened over time among people with spine problems. CONCLUSION: Expenditure increases for spine-related inpatient, prescription, and emergency services were primarily the result of increasing per-user expenditures, while those related to outpatient visits were primarily due to an increase in the number of users of ambulatory services.

Assessment of biopsychosocial risk factors for medical treatment: a collaborative approach.

There is a growing body of evidence that psychosocial variables have a significant ability to predict the outcome of medical treatment procedures, especially when the procedure is performed to reduce pain. The study described in this paper serves as an illustration of the valuable role psychologists can play in dealing with the challenges of biopsychosocial assessment of patients who are candidates for medical treatments, especially elective, invasive procedures. Based on a convergent model of risk factors that can potentially influence outcomes from spinal surgery and spinal cord stimulation, exclusionary and cautionary risk factors were identified, and the BHI 2 and BBHI 2 tests were used to assess them. An estimate of the prevalence of these risk factors was calculated using data obtained from 1,254 patient and community subjects gathered from 106 sites in 36 US states. Standardized Cautionary Risk and Exclusionary Risk scores demonstrated a test-retest reliability of .85 to .91. Evidence of validity of these scores was also provided based on subjective and objective criteria, using multiple groups of patients and community subjects. Recommendations are made regarding how biopsychosocial assessments could be used in collaborative settings for presurgical candidates to identify risks that could compromise a patient's ability to benefit from other medical treatments as well. Once identified, appropriate interventions could ameliorate these risks, or lead to the consideration of other treatments that are more likely to be effective. Methods of refining this approach for specific clinical applications are also discussed.

Psychometric properties of the Cervical Spine Outcomes Questionnaire and its relationship to standard assessment tools used in spine research.

BACKGROUND: The Cervical Spine Outcomes Questionnaire (CSOQ), a disease-specific outcomes instrument, has not been systematically compared with the Short Form-36 (SF-36) or the Neck Disability Index (NDI). PURPOSE: To examine the psychometric properties of the CSOQ and to compare them with those of the SF-36 and NDI. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective analysis of outcomes data in patients undergoing surgery. METHODS: We used telephone surveys (CSOQ) and clinical assessments (SF-36 and NDI) to evaluate 534 patients undergoing anterior cervical decompression and fusion at 23 nationwide sites. The psychometric properties of the CSOQ were analyzed for floor/ceiling effect, internal consistency of items within the CSOQ, and concurrent validity with the SF-36 and NDI. RESULTS: The CSOQ domain scores showed good psychometric properties (Cronbach's alpha >0.70). Only physical symptoms (other than pain) showed a ceiling effect. The CSOQ domain scores had good concurrent validity (Spearman rank correlation coefficient >0.70) with the mental health score of the SF-36 and the total disability score of NDI. CONCLUSIONS: The CSOQ domain scores provide a disease-specific assessment of functional limitations resulting from cervical spine disorders. The domain scores for functional disability and psychological distress provide similar information to that provided by the NDI and SF-36. The CSOQ domain scores for pain severity provide information that is more specific to cervical disc disease than does the physical health score of the SF-36.

[Early pensioning: reasons and sequelae. A retrospective study of prognosis in early pensioning and course of illness subsequent to premature retirement]. / Frühberentung: Bedingung und Folgen. Eine retrospektive Untersuchung zur Prognostik der Frührente und dem Krankheitsverlauf nach vorzeitiger Berentung.

The aim of the present study was to identify factors at the beginning of inpatient rehabilitation for musculoskeletal diseases, predicting the employment state as early retiree or employed person 5 years after discharge. Of the cases, 88.7% could be correctly classified by logistic regression through "results of radiological imaging procedures," "duration of sick leave," and "wish for social compensation." Another objective was investigation of the influence of retirement on development of complaints. Early retirees were compared retrospectively to working persons 5 years after discharge with regard to development of main symptoms and well-being, considering the initial reason for social compensation. Early retirees with clinical reason for early retirement showed no marked changes, whereas patients who continued to work improved significantly in the long run. Results are discussed in relation to their socioeconomic implications.

Outcomes of disabling cervical spine disorders in compensation injuries. A prospective comparison to tertiary rehabilitation response for chronic lumbar spinal disorders.

STUDY DESIGN: A prospective, longitudinal cohort study assessing quantitative socioeconomic outcomes of tertiary rehabilitation for chronically disabled patients with cervical spinal disorders compared with those with more common chronic lumbar spinal disorders. OBJECTIVES: To assess 1-year socioeconomic outcomes of a worst-case cohort of consecutive patients with chronic cervical spinal disorders compared with those of patients with lumbar spinal disorders and to assess differences in an array of variables between those patients who reported any period of work during the posttreatment year and those who did not. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Few investigators have evaluated outcomes in patients with cervical spinal disorders. None have specifically studied distinctions in socioeconomic outcomes in patients with chronic cervical spinal disorders and in patients with other spinal disorders. Reports of pain are noted to persist in a high percentage of patients with whiplash receiving compensation even 10 years after injury, but the status of work, use of health care resources, financial disputes, or recurrent injury are unknown. METHODS: A cohort of consecutive chronically disabled patients with spinal disorders (N = 1198) was assessed for prospectively collected demographic, self-report, and physical performance data. A subset of patients (n = 421) with work-related cervical spinal disorders was compared with a group with various lumbar spinal disorders (n = 777). A structured clinical interview was administered 1 year after patients entered an interdisciplinary functional restoration program. RESULTS: High rates of return to work and continuation of work were recorded in the cervical and lumbar spinal disorder groups, with low rates of recurrent injury, new surgery in the injured area, and use of health care resources. There were no statistically significant differences between the groups. Multivariate analyses showed several variables that differentiated between those patients who had any reported period of work during the post-treatment year versus those who did not in the cervical and the lumbar spinal disorder groups. CONCLUSIONS: This first large cohort study of outcomes in chronically disabled patients with work-related cervical spinal disorder produced results similar to those found in tertiary functional restoration rehabilitation in chronic lumbar spinal disorders. In spite of poor outcomes reported in the literature for similar cervical and lumbar spinal disorders in patients receiving workers' compensation for disability, successful outcomes can be anticipated after effective rehabilitation, regardless of response to prerehabilitation treatment.

Should extended disability be an exclusion criterion for tertiary rehabilitation? Socioeconomic outcomes of early versus late functional restoration in compensation spinal disorders.

STUDY DESIGN: A prospective cohort design with two groups of patients representing short-term or long-term disability (n = 497) who were selected from a larger cohort (n = 938) of consecutively treated spinal disorder patients with chronic compensation injuries. OBJECTIVES: To prospectively evaluate the impact of length of spinal disability on socioeconomic outcomes of medically directed rehabilitation. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Despite an increasing tendency of managed care organizations to limit rehabilitation services for disabled workers with chronic spinal disorders, there has been a surprising lack of prospective research evaluating the impact of length of disability on objective socioeconomic treatment outcomes. Although only approximately 10% of all patients with spinal disorders are disabled beyond 4 months, they account for nearly 80% of all workers' compensation expenditures. Little is known about whether relatively early intervention improves outcomes after chronicity has been established or whether any predictors distinguish between these groups. METHODS: Two comparison groups of functional restoration tertiary treatment graduates were identified from the same community referral pool. The "long-term disabled" group involved a minimum of 18 months of disability (n = 252). This group was compared with a "short-term disabled" group (n = 245), no more than 8 months since injury, but chronic based on a minimum of 4 months after injury. The long-term disabled group showed significantly higher rates of pretreatment surgery than the short-term disabled group (P < 0.001). All patients were evaluated prospectively with specific physical, psychological, and occupational measurements. They also underwent a structured interview 1 year after treatment evaluating work status, health care use, and recurrent injury. RESULTS: The short-term disabled group showed statistically higher return to work (P < 0.001) and work retention (P < 0.05) relative to the long-term disabled group. However, health care use and recurrent lost time injury claims were low in both groups and did not differ significantly. No predictors of outcome were found among the prospectively collected physical performance or psychosocial variables. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that early tertiary nonoperative care, once patients with chronic spinal disorders are identified as having potentially high-cost chronic pain and disability, is efficacious in achieving goals of better work return and work retention. Such early rehabilitation may also prevent significant indemnity expense, as well as some late surgical interventions sought by progressively more desperate patients. However, individuals with long-term disability achieve respectable work return and retention rates, while faring no worse on other socioeconomic outcomes that represent major "cost drivers" to the workers' compensation system. Early intervention is not a panacea or a necessary condition for the successful rehabilitation of workers with disabling chronic spinal disorders.

Reconstructive spinal surgery: assessment of outcome.

One of the foremost problems in evaluating patients who have had spinal surgery is the difficulty in reliably assessing changes in symptoms and function attributable to the operative procedure. In this study, a questionnaire was sent to patients who had had spinal surgery at least 6 months earlier. The data were entered into a data base that contained information about the surgical procedure. Correlation studies were conducted and t tests were used to find statistically significant differences. Seventy-two patients returned the completed questionnaire. The rate of return to work was significantly lower among those involved in workers' compensation or litigation and those with prolonged preoperative unemployment. Depression inversely correlated with satisfaction, the number of dissatisfied patients correlating directly with the number of patients significantly depressed. Physical deconditioning, change in attitude and perception, preinjury job dissatisfaction, secondary gain, and other medical conditions significantly decreased the probabilities of return to work and satisfaction.

[The spine--a focus of epidemic compensation disease]. / Die Wirbelsäule--ein Fokus der epidemischen Rentensucht.

Description of functional and structural alterations of the spine with reference to their significance for the professional fitness. If the actual job has to be discontinued a professional readaptation is undertaken or an invalid pension can be accorded. Often there is a discrepancy between clinical and radiological findings and the diminished professional activity. These factors are discussed. A pension accorded to a younger individual discourages the personal engagement especially if the amount of this pension is high.