Evaluation of zoonotic platyhelminthe infections identified in slaughtered livestock in Iran, 2015-2019.

BACKGROUND: Platyhelminth infections of livestock can result in considerable economic losses. This study aims to evaluate the spatial frequency of cystic echinococcosis (CE), dicrocoeliasis, and fascioliasis in livestock slaughtered in Iran during the years 2015-2019 and estimate direct costs associated with organ condemnation due to these parasites. METHODS: Abattoir data from 413 abattoirs representing all 31 Iranian provinces were collected from the Iran Veterinary Organization. Infection prevalence was calculated per year at the province level. The Local Moran's I statistic was performed to evaluate spatial autocorrelation of animals positive at slaughter for the years 2015-2019. Direct costs associated with condemned livers were calculated for each parasitic condition, with costs associated with condemned lungs also included for CE. RESULTS: Overall prevalence values for the study timeframe were as follows: sheep and goat fascioliasis 1.56% (95% CI: 1.56-1.56%), cattle fascioliasis 3.86% (95% CI: 3.85-3.88%), sheep and goat dicrocoeliasis 4.63% (95% CI: 4.62-4.63%), cattle dicrocoeliasis 3.08% (95% CI: 3.07-3.09%), sheep and goat CE 5.32% (95% CI: 5.32-5.33%), and cattle CE 7.26% (95% CI: 7.24-7.28%). Northwest Iran had the highest prevalence of CE and fascioliasis. High infection areas for Dicrocoelium spp. included the provinces of Zanjan, Gilan, Qazvin, and Tehran, which are located in northern Iran. Direct economic losses for sheep and goat fascioliasis, dicrocoeliasis, and CE for the study period were US$13,842,759, US$41,771,377, and US$22,801,054, respectively. Direct economic losses for cattle fascioliasis, dicrocoeliasis, and CE for the study period were US$1,989,200, US$1,668,986, and US$2,656,568, respectively. CONCLUSION: Our findings provide valuable data for future monitoring of these important parasitic diseases in Iranian livestock. Disease control strategies are required to reduce the economic and public health impact of these platyhelminths.

Initial assessment of the economic burden of major parasitic helminth infections to the ruminant livestock industry in Europe.

We report a European wide assessment of the economic burden of gastrointestinal nematodes, Fasciola hepatica (common liver fluke) and Dictyocaulus viviparus (bovine lungworm) infections to the ruminant livestock industry. The economic impact of these parasitic helminth infections was estimated by a deterministic spreadsheet model as a function of the proportion of the ruminant population exposed to grazing, the infection frequency and intensity, the effect of the infection on animal productivity and mortality and anthelmintic treatment costs. In addition, we estimated the costs of anthelmintic resistant nematode infections and collected information on public research budgets addressing helminth infections in ruminant livestock. The epidemiologic and economic input data were collected from international databases and via expert opinion of the Working Group members of the European Co-operation in Science and Technology (COST) action COMbatting Anthelmintic Resistance in ruminants (COMBAR). In order to reflect the effects of uncertainty in the input data, low and high cost estimates were obtained by varying uncertain input data arbitrarily in both directions by 20 %. The combined annual cost [low estimate-high estimate] of the three helminth infections in 18 participating countries was estimated at € 1.8 billion [€ 1.0-2.7 billion]. Eighty-one percent of this cost was due to lost production and 19 % was attributed to treatment costs. The cost of gastrointestinal nematode infections with resistance against macrocyclic lactones was estimated to be € 38 million [€ 11-87 million] annually. The annual estimated costs of helminth infections per sector were € 941 million [€ 488 - 1442 million] in dairy cattle, € 423 million [€ 205-663 million] in beef cattle, € 151million [€ 90-213 million] in dairy sheep, € 206 million [€ 132-248 million] in meat sheep and € 86 million [€ 67-107 million] in dairy goats. Important data gaps were present in all phases of the calculations which lead to large uncertainties around the estimates. Accessibility of more granular animal population datasets at EU level, deeper knowledge of the effects of infection on production, levels of infection and livestock grazing exposure across Europe would make the largest contribution to improved burden assessments. The known current public investment in research on helminth control was 0.15 % of the estimated annual costs for the considered parasitic diseases. Our data suggest that the costs of enzootic helminth infections which usually occur at high prevalence annually in ruminants, are similar or higher than reported costs of epizootic diseases. Our data can support decision making in research and policy to mitigate the negative impacts of helminth infections and anthelmintic resistance in Europe, and provide a baseline against which to measure future changes.

Public health and economic importance of Toxoplasma gondii infections in goats: The last decade.

Toxoplasma gondii infections are common in humans and animals worldwide. Toxoplasmosis in goats continues to be of public health and economic concern. The present review summarizes worldwide information on the prevalence of clinical and subclinical infections, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and genetic diversity of T. gondii in goats in the past decade. There is debate and uncertainty regarding excretion of T. gondii in milk and the ingestion of raw milk as sources of T. gondii infection for humans. Toxoplasmosis can cause abortion and deaths even in adult goats. PCR-RFLP typing of T. gondii DNA derived from viable T. gondii isolates has revealed genetic diversity in goats in North and South America. The significance of T. gondii isolates in domestic goats usually associated with wildlife in USA is discussed. This review will be of interest to biologists, parasitologists, veterinarians, and public health workers.

Economic impact of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia and cost-benefit analysis of the vaccination programmes based on a one-year continuous monitoring of flocks in the arid and semi-arid lands of Kenya.

In Kenya and East Africa, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) is one of the most prevalent infectious diseases affecting small ruminants in pastoral areas with adverse consequences on livelihoods. This is so despite the implementation of bi-annual vaccination campaigns. Unfortunately, the impact of the disease and the cost-effectiveness of its prevention and control in a pastoral context have been difficult to assess due to a lack of reliable data. The dynamic of flock population, high illiteracy and limited outreach are the main challenges for proper data collection. Nevertheless, such analysis is important to justify the implementation of national vaccination campaign for livestock disease control and to contribute to pastoral households' economy support programme. A continuous flock monitoring was performed for a year in Turkana County to collect data on flock dynamics and the different causes of mortalities. A stochastic model was developed to evaluate the annual economic losses due to CCPP in a standard flock of 100 heads and evaluate the cost-benefit ratio of the vaccination programmes based on different scenarios of 95%, 50% and 20% vaccination effectiveness. The annual economic losses due to CCPP for a standard flock of 100 heads were estimated at Euros 1,712.66 in average. The benefits-costs ratio of the vaccination supports the current bi-annual vaccination campaigns, even with a vaccine effectiveness limited to 20% (average benefits-costs ratio of 5.715 with SD of 3.914). This justifies the campaigns as part of a food security or livelihood support programme. However, from an overall health perspective and for long-term effects on livestock asset protection and disease control, a higher vaccination effectiveness is required.

Field-derived estimates of costs for Peste des Petits Ruminants vaccination in Ethiopia.

In 2015, the OIE and FAO launched a global eradication programme for Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR). Vaccination is a major component of this strategy yet the costs of implementing a campaign are unknown or based on assumptions without field-based verification necessary for effective economic planning. This study used experiences of attending four PPR vaccination campaigns in Ethiopia to estimate various cost components in pastoral and mixed-crop livestock systems. These components included: cost of vaccine; vaccine transport from the producer to the local storage facility; storage of vaccine at the local facility; delivery and administration of vaccine in the field; opportunity cost of farmer's time to attend the vaccination; co-ordination of vaccination campaign; publicity and mobilisation costs; vaccine wastage from missed shots and vaccine discard. The overall cost of vaccination was approximately 6 Ethiopian birr (ETB) or US$0.2 per animal in the mixed-crop livestock system compared to approximately 3ETB or US$0.1 in pastoral areas. The relative importance of cost components varied in the two systems with farmer time being the largest contributor in the mixed-crop livestock system while field delivery was the main cost in pastoral areas. Notable vaccine wastage was observed particularly through missed shots that were typically between 0 and 10% but as high as 33%. At the national level, the output of the stochastic model showed the cost of vaccination to be highly variable particularly in the mixed-crop livestock system. These results highlight the importance of doing economic assessments of vaccination campaigns and issues that may be compromising efficiency of delivery and vaccine coverage. It is recommended that the framework be used for further economic evaluations of vaccination for PPR and other livestock diseases particularly when limited public or donor funds are being used, and that the approach be expanded to other countries and regions.

Analysis of pastoralists' perception on challenges and opportunities for sheep and goat production in Northern Kenya.

Small ruminants' production contributes to livelihood of pastoral communities, but this faces myriad constraints. This study aimed at identifying challenges facing producers of small ruminants, prioritizing diseases and their control measures and documenting opportunities for improvement. Sixteen focus group discussions with livestock owners and 13 key informant interviews were done in selected areas in Mandera County, Northern Kenya, and both quantitative and qualitative data collected using a questionnaire guide. Occurrences of diseases (27.4%) and drought (25%) were consistently ranked high in all groups. Other production challenges included increased predation of livestock, inadequate delivery of veterinary services, and increased livestock mortalities. Peste des Petit ruminants was ranked high with a median rank of 21.5%, while contagious caprine pleuropneumonia and sheep and goat pox were ranked second and third, respectively. Other diseases included tick-borne diseases, helminthosis, and pneumonia. Vaccination was ranked as the most effective control strategy for infectious diseases. Other control measures included recitation of Quran and cauterization. However, several opportunities exist for support of small ruminants' production: increased budgetary allocation for disease control by government, initiation of projects that enhance livestock production in the region by government and its development partners. These findings are useful for policy makers for disease control and organizations that are working on projects that focuses on enhancement of pastoralists' resilience, while future research could also identify appropriate technologies that reduces these impacts.

Cystic echinococcosis in animals and humans of Maharashtra State, India.

Echinococcosis/hydatidosis which is a neglected parasitic zoonosis in the developing country like India. The study was conducted during April, 2010 to March, 2017 to determine the prevalence among slaughtered food animals, dogs and human. The samples were collected from the various slaughterhouses situated in different regions of Maharashtra state. A total of 9464 cattle (male), 3661 buffalo, 47189 sheep, 33350 goats and 13579 pigs were scientifically examined during PM inspection at different slaughterhouses. The study revealed that the prevalence of disease in cattle (3.00%) was highest followed by buffalo (2.05%), pig (1.28%), sheep (0.09%) and goat (0.01%), by PM examination. The average estimated economic losses (direct and indirect) due to hydatidosis were Rs. 8,65,83,566 in cattle, Rs. 44,33,93,900 in buffalo, Rs. 7,24,50,615 in sheep, Rs. 1,88,29,359 in goat and Rs. 5,20,49,081 in pigs. Dog faecal samples analyzed and showed the prevalence of echinococcosis as 4.34% (19/438) by sedimentation method and positive samples were confirmed by PCR assay, whereas in high risk human, 11.09% sera samples were found to be positive for echinococcosis. However, based on data collection for seven years, 58 patients were found to be surgically operated for hydatid cyst removal. The results of the present study indicated that cystic echinococcosis/hydatidosis is prevalent in both human and animal population in study areas which attracts serious attention from veterinary and public health authority to reduce economic burden and in designing appropriate strategy for prevention and control of disease.

Constraints affecting dairy goats milk production in Kenya.

In Kenya, the population of dairy goats is about 200,000 and 80% of these are reared in Mount Kenya region. They provide a quick source of milk for consumption or sale, which has an immense value especially to poor households. The small land sizes required for their rearing are especially useful in these highly populated areas. Although much research has been done on problems faced by dairy cattle farmers, limited information is available on problems faced by dairy goat farmers. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the constraints affecting dairy goat production in Mount Kenya region. In a cross-sectional survey, 157 farmers were interviewed on major constraints using a semi-structured questionnaire. The results from the questionnaires showed that the main problems experienced by these farmers were as follows: lack of market of milk and goats 45% (71/157), diseases 33% (52/157), high cost of concentrates 25% (38/157), lack of feed 19% (30/157), problems of unreliable buck rotation program 16.5% (26/157), and insecurity 1.8% (3/157). The study revealed that dairy goat farmers in the region faced by a number of challenges and therefore, our recommendation is there is a need for farmers to be trained on innovative ways of value chain addition and other strategies to market their milk. Additionally, the government should put resources to salvage the milk plant and association members should put firm measures to improve management. Creation of farmer awareness, treatment, and disease control measures should be instituted to improve productivity.

Temporal Analysis and Costs of Ruminant Brucellosis Control Programme in Egypt Between 1999 and 2011.

Data for the prevalence of brucellosis in ruminants in Egypt are scarce; recent studies suggest the disease is endemic, with a high prevalence. The aim of this study was to assess the financial costs and the impact of the current control programme on the pattern of brucellosis among ruminants between 1999 and 2011. A univariate binary logistic regression model was used to compare between seropositive proportions for different years for each species. The proportion of seropositive cattle was significantly increased from 2000 to 2004 then significantly decreased from 2005 to 2011. The proportion of seropositive buffalo fluctuated year to year; however, there was a significant increase in 2008 (OR 3.13, 95% CI 2.69-3.66, P < 0.001). There was a decrease in the proportion of seropositive sheep during the study period except in 2001 and 2009 in which there was a significant increase. The proportion of seropositive goats increased in 2000 and 2001, and then decreased from 2002 to 2007. In 2008, there was a significant increase in the seropositive proportion of goats (OR 2.53, 95% CI 2.21-2.90, P < 0.001). The average annual cost for the control programme including testing and compensation was more than US$3 million. The total cost for the control programme including testing and compensation for the period (13 years) between 1999 and 2011 was more than US$40 million, from which more than 56% for cattle. Further studies are required for the effectiveness of the current control strategies and alternative strategies should be considered. The socio-economic impact of brucellosis and its control measures should be investigated.

Impact of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis on profit efficiency in semi-extensive dairy sheep and goat farms of Apulia, southern Italy.

A recent study on paratubercolosis in semi-extensive dairy sheep and goat farms in Apulia revealed a flock positivity of 60.5% and a seroprevalence of 3.0% for sheep and 14.5% for goat, with peaks of 50%. In such a context, providing detailed economic information is crucial for the implementation of a suitable control plan. In this paper we investigated the impact of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) on profit efficiency of the Apulian dairy sheep and goat farms. Empirical results through a stochastic frontier model showed that the uninfected farms had a mean level of profit efficiency of 84%, which dropped to 64% in the presence of paratubercolosis as it negatively affected the productivity of feeding, veterinary and labour factors. Structural, managerial and production aspects were involved in the greater inefficiency of the infected farms compared to the uninfected ones: lower experience and schooling of farmers, no access to credit, fewer family members (women in particular) participating in the farming activities, high density of animals per hectare, small flocks, high number of goats in mixed flocks, no confinement practices for young and purchased animals and no pasture rotation. Hence, targeted interventions on these factors by decision makers can ensure effectiveness and efficiency to veterinary and economic action plans.

The 'Toolbox' of strategies for managing Haemonchus contortus in goats: What's in and what's out.

A dynamic and innovative approach to managing the blood-consuming nematode Haemonchus contortus in goats is critical to crack dependence on veterinary anthelmintics. H. contortus management strategies have been the subject of intense research for decades, and must be selected to create a tailored, individualized program for goat farms. Through the selection and combination of strategies from the Toolbox, an effective management program for H. contortus can be designed according to the unique conditions of each particular farm. This Toolbox investigates strategies including vaccines, bioactive forages, pasture/grazing management, behavioural management, natural immunity, FAMACHA, Refugia and strategic drenching, mineral/vitamin supplementation, copper Oxide Wire Particles (COWPs), breeding and selection/selecting resistant and resilient individuals, biological control and anthelmintic drugs. Barbervax(®), the ground-breaking Haemonchus vaccine developed and currently commercially available on a pilot scale for sheep, is prime for trialling in goats and would be an invaluable inclusion to this Toolbox. The specialised behaviours of goats, specifically their preferences to browse a variety of plants and accompanying physiological adaptations to the consumption of secondary compounds contained in browse, have long been unappreciated and thus overlooked as a valuable, sustainable strategy for Haemonchus management. These strategies are discussed in this review as to their value for inclusion into the 'Toolbox' currently, and the future implications of ongoing research for goat producers. Combining and manipulating strategies such as browsing behaviour, pasture management, bioactive forages and identifying and treating individual animals for haemonchosis, in addition to continuous evaluation of strategy effectiveness, is conducted using a model farm scenario. Selecting strategies from the Toolbox, with regard to their current availability, feasibility, economical cost and potential ease of implementation depending on the systems of production and their complementary nature, is the future of managing H. contortus in farmed goats internationally and maintaining the remaining efficacy of veterinary anthelmintics.

The Economic Impact of Eradicating Peste des Petits Ruminants: A Benefit-Cost Analysis.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an important cause of mortality and production loss among sheep and goats in the developing world. Despite control efforts in a number of countries, it has continued to spread across Africa and Asia, placing an increasing burden on the livelihoods of livestock keepers and on veterinary resources in affected countries. Given the similarities between PPR and rinderpest, and the lessons learned from the successful global eradication of rinderpest, the eradication of PPR seems appealing, both eliminating an important disease and improving the livelihoods of the poor in developing countries. We conducted a benefit-cost analysis to examine the economic returns from a proposed programme for the global eradication of PPR. Based on our knowledge and experience, we developed the eradication strategy and estimated its costs. The benefits of the programme were determined from (i) the averted mortality costs, based on an analysis of the literature, (ii) the downstream impact of reduced mortality using a social accounting matrix, and (iii) the avoided control costs based on current levels of vaccination. The results of the benefit-cost analysis suggest strong economic returns from PPR eradication. Based on a 15-year programme with total discounted costs of US$2.26 billion, we estimate discounted benefits of US$76.5 billion, yielding a net benefit of US$74.2 billion. This suggests a benefit cost ratio of 33.8, and an internal rate of return (IRR) of 199%. As PPR mortality rates are highly variable in different populations, we conducted a sensitivity analysis based on lower and higher mortality scenarios. All the scenarios examined indicate that investment in PPR eradication would be highly beneficial economically. Furthermore, removing one of the major constraints to small ruminant production would be of considerable benefit to many of the most vulnerable communities in Africa and Asia.

Economic aspects of Q fever control in dairy goats.

This paper presents an economic analysis of Q fever control strategies in dairy goat herds in The Netherlands. Evaluated control strategies involved vaccination strategies (being either preventive or reactive) and reactive non-vaccination strategies (i.e., culling or breeding prohibition). Reactive strategies were initiated after PCR positive bulk tank milk or after an abortion storm (abortion percentage in the herd of 5% or more). Preventive vaccination eradicates Q fever in a herd on average within 2 and 7 years (depending on breeding style and vaccination strategy). Economic outcomes reveal that preventive vaccination is always the preferred Q fever control strategy on infected farms and this even holds for a partial analysis if only on-farm costs and benefits are accounted for and human health costs are ignored. Averted human health costs depend to a large extend on the number of infected human cases per infected farm or animal. Much is yet unknown with respect to goat-human transmission rates. When the pathogen is absent in both livestock and farm environment then the "freedom of Q fever disease" is achieved. This would enable a return to non-vaccinated herds but more insight is required with respect to the mechanisms and probability of re-infection.

Economic comparison of the monitoring programmes for bluetongue vectors in Austria and Switzerland.

With the bluetongue virus serotype 8 (BTV-8) outbreak in 2006, vector monitoring programmes (according to EU regulation 1266/2007) were implemented by European countries to obtain information on the spatial distribution of vectors and the vector-free period. This study investigates the vector monitoring programmes in Austria and Switzerland by performing a retrospective cost analysis for the period 2006-2010. Two types of costs were distinguished: costs financed directly via the national bluetongue programmes and costs contributed in-kind by the responsible institutions and agricultural holdings. The total net costs of the monitoring programme in Austria amounted to €1,415,000, whereby in Switzerland the costs were valued at €94,000. Both countries followed the legislation complying with requirements, but differed in regard to sampling frequency, number of trap sites and sampling strategy. Furthermore, the surface area of Austria is twice the area of Switzerland although the number of ruminants is almost the same in both countries. Thus, for comparison, the costs were normalised with regard to the sampling frequency and the number of trap sites. Resulting costs per trap sample comprised €164 for Austria and €48 for Switzerland. In both countries, around 50 per cent of the total costs can be attributed to payments in-kind. The benefit of this study is twofold: first, veterinary authorities may use the results to improve the economic efficiency of future vector monitoring programmes. Second, the analysis of the payment in-kind contribution is of great importance to public authorities as it makes the available resources visible and demonstrates how they have been used.

Financial analysis of brucellosis control for small-scale goat farming in the Bajío region, Mexico.

Brucellosis is an endemic disease in small-scale goat husbandry systems in Mexico. It is a zoonosis and the economic consequences can be large, although estimates are not available for the Mexican goat sector. Our objective was to conduct a financial analysis of brucellosis control in a prominent dairy goat production area of the Bajío region, Mexico. We used three models: (1) a brucellosis transmission model at village flock level (n=1000 head), (2) a flock growth model at smallholder flock level (n=23 head) using output of model 1 and (3) cost-benefit analysis of several brucellosis control scenarios based on output of model 2. Scenarios consisted of test-and-slaughter or vaccination or a combination of both compared to the base situation (no control). The average net present values (NPV) of using vaccination over a 5-year period was 3.8 US$ (90% CI: 1.3-6.6) and 20 US$ (90% CI: 11.3-28.6) over a 10-year period per goat. The average benefit-cost ratios over a 5-year period and 10-year period were 4.3 US$ (90% CI: 2.2-6.9) and 12.3 US$ (90% CI: 7.5-17.3) per goat, respectively. For the total dairy goat population (38,462 head) of the study area (the Bajío of Jalisco and Michoacán) the NPV's over a 5-year and 10-year period were 0.15 million US$ and 0.8 million US$. However, brucellosis prevalence was predicted to remain relatively high at about 12%. Control scenarios with test-and-slaughter predicted to reduce brucellosis prevalence to less than 3%, but this produced a negative NPV over a 5-year period ranging from -31.6 to -11.1 US$ and from -31.1 to 7.5 US$ over a 10-year period. A brucellosis control campaign based on vaccination with full coverage is economically profitable for the goat dairy sector of the region although smallholders would need financial support in case test-and-slaughter is applied to reduce the prevalence more quickly.

An analysis of seroprevalence and risk factors for parasitic infections of economic importance in small ruminants in Greece.

A cross-sectional serological survey was carried out to screen the small ruminants of Thessaly, Greece, for infection with Haemonchus contortus, lungworms (i.e. Cystocaulus ocreatus, Muellerius capillaris, Protostrongylus rufescens and Neostrongylus linearis) as a group, and for Cysticercus tenuicolis, Linguatula serrata and Oestrus ovis. A second objective was to determine the risk factors related to herd characteristics, management practices, farmer status and bioclimatic variables associated with these parasitic infections. A total of 361 sheep and 179 goat serum samples were examined. The seroprevalences were 33.9%, 41.5%, 14.1%, 4.6% and 1.4% for H. contortus, lungworms, L. serrata, C. tenuicolis and O. ovis, respectively. The final logistic regression model showed that farm location and temperature were associated with H. contortus, lungworm and L. serrata infections. Anthelmintic treatment, class of anthelmintic and rotation of grazing were associated with H. contortus and lungworm infections, while grazing with other herds was associated with lungworm and L. serrata infections; rain was associated with H. contortus and L. serrata infections. Farm type and age of farmer were associated with H. contortus infections and elevation was associated with lungworm infection. The results may help to formulate appropriate control strategies in Greece and other areas with similar climatic conditions in order to channel limited resources to mitigate only those risk factors which are significant to protect the profitability of the livestock industry.

Caprine besnoitiosis: an emerging threat and its relationship to some other infections of ungulates by Besnoitia species.

Caprine besnoitiosis, caused by the cyst-forming protozoal apicomplexan Besnoitia caprae appears to be endemic in Kenya, Nigeria and Iran, but has yet to be detected in other parts of the world. The infection causes an important parasitic disease of goats in affected developing countries. Bovine besnoitiosis, is a widespread disease of cattle in Africa, Asia (but not Iran) and southern Europe. Recent epidemiological data confirm that the incidence and geographical range of bovine besnoitiosis in Europe is increasing, which is why growing attention has been given to the condition during the past decade. This paper reviews pertinent information on the biology, epidemiology, pathology, clinical signs, diagnosis and control of caprine besnoitiosis, together with its similarities to, and differences from, bovine besnoitiosis. The serious economic consequences of besnoitiosis on goat breeding and local meat and hide industries is also considered.

Peste des Petits Ruminants virus: an emerging threat to goat farming in Pakistan.

Pakistan at present is having more than 60 million head of goats, which consist of about 37 well-recognized breeds found in different regions of the country. Although the goat farming on commercial level is escalating in Pakistan, there are threats, which result this initiative into a loss. Among these threats, Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) outbreaks are causing huge economic damages. In this study, three outbreaks of PPR were confirmed at three different commercial farms in various regions of Punjab province and their economic impact on small ruminants farming was calculated. The disease started after 1-2 months of the establishment of these farms as the animals were purchased from different livestock markets. Disease started with sudden onset of respiratory and enteric clinical signs and spreads quickly. Disease caused mortality and morbidity of 10-15% and 20-40%, respectively, within a time period of 01-03 weeks. At these three farms, 116 of 365 animals exhibited the clinical disease, with an overall morbidity rate of 31.78%. A total of 43 animals died with mortality rate of 11.78% (43/365) causing a direct financial loss of $4300 (Pakistan Rupees 430,000/-), while the indirect cost due to treatment, loss of animal body condition, reduction in market value, increase veterinary services and labour was $7911 (Pak Rs. 791,100/-). Taken together, the results demonstrate that there is an urgent need to assess the economic impact of the disease throughout the country and to give proper emphasis for controlling PPR in sensitive regions where it is discouraging the investment in goat farming.

Economic assessment of Q fever in the Netherlands.

In this paper the economic impact of controlling the Q fever epidemic in 2007-2011 in the Netherlands is assessed. Whereas most of the long-term benefits of the implemented control programme stem from reduced disease burden and human health costs, the majority of short-term intervention costs were incurred in the dairy goat sector. The total intervention cost in agriculture amounted approximately 35,000 Euro per DALY occurred. By culling of infected animals, breeding prohibition and vaccination, the epidemic seems to be under control. As the dairy goat vaccination programme continues, future expenses in maintaining the current protected status are relatively low.

Abattoir prevalence, organ distribution, public health and economic importance of major metacestodes in sheep, goats and cattle in Fars, southern Iran.

Some of the metacestodes are not only zoonotic but are also responsible for severe tissue damage, reduction in milk and meat production, and considerable economic loss due to condemnation of the infected organs of the herbivorous animals. The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence of Cysticercus ovis, Cysticercus tenuicollis, hydatid cyst and Coenurus gaigeri in sheep and goats and Cysticercus bovis, Cysticereus tenuicollis and hydatid cyst in cattle. A total of 1050 sheep, 950 goats and 500 cattle slaughtered at Shiraz Slaughterhouse were carefully examined for these metacestodes. Cysticercus tenuicollis was found in 184 (17.52%) sheep and 523 (55.05%) goats. The prevalence of C. tenuicollis was higher in males than females (P<0.01), and was higher in goats compared to sheep (P<0.01). Hydatid cyst was found in 478 (45.52%) sheep and 95 (10.0%) goats and its prevalence was higher in older animals compared to the younger ones. Coenurus gaigeri was found in 5 (0.48%) sheep and 17 (1.79%) goats and Cysticercus ovis was found in one male sheep only (0.09%). Cysticercus bovis was found in 3 male cattle (0.6%) and hydatid cyst was found in 58 (11.6%) cattle. The prevalence of hydatid cyst was higher in older cattle compared to the younger ones and higher in females than males. These results suggest that the high prevalence of the metacestodes infestations in this area is a great concern for both medical and veterinary authorities to design therapeutic and preventive programs to overcome this problem.