Parallel multi-criteria decision analysis for sub-national prioritization of zoonoses and animal diseases in Africa: The case of Cameroon.

The use of multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) for disease prioritization at the sub-national level in sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) is rare. In this research, we contextualized MCDA for parallel prioritization of endemic zoonoses and animal diseases in The Adamawa and North regions of Cameroon. MCDA was associated to categorical principal component analysis (CATPCA), and two-step cluster analysis. Six and seven domains made of 17 and 19 criteria (out of 70) respectively were selected by CATPCA for the prioritization of zoonoses and animal diseases, respectively. The most influencing domains were "public health" for zoonoses and "control and prevention" for animal diseases. Twenty-seven zoonoses and 40 animal diseases were ranked and grouped in three clusters. Sensitivity analysis resulted in high correlation between complete models and reduced models showing the robustness of the simplification processes. The tool used in this study can be applied to prioritize endemic zoonoses and transboundary animal diseases in SSA at the sub-national level and upscaled at the national and regional levels. The relevance of MCDA is high because of its contextualization process and participatory nature enabling better operationalization of disease prioritization outcomes in the context of African countries or other low and middle-income countries.

Quantifying cost of disease in livestock: a new metric for the Global Burden of Animal Diseases.

BACKGROUND: Increasing awareness of the environmental and public health impacts of expanding and intensifying animal-based food and farming systems creates discord, with the reliance of much of the world's population on animals for livelihoods and essential nutrition. Increasing the efficiency of food production through improved animal health has been identified as a step towards minimising these negative effects without compromising global food security. The Global Burden of Animal Diseases (GBADs) programme aims to provide data and analytical methods to support positive change in animal health across all livestock and aquaculture animal populations. METHODS: In this study, we present a metric that begins the process of disease burden estimation by converting the physical consequences of disease on animal performance to farm-level costs of disease, and calculates a metric termed the Animal Health Loss Envelope (AHLE) via comparison between the status quo and a disease-free ideal. An example calculation of the AHLE metric for meat production from broiler chickens is provided. FINDINGS: The AHLE presents the direct financial costs of disease at farm-level for all causes by estimating losses and expenditure in a given farming system. The general specification of the model measures productivity change at farm-level and provides an upper bound on productivity change in the absence of disease. On its own, it gives an indication of the scale of total disease cost at farm-level. INTERPRETATION: The AHLE is an essential stepping stone within the GBADs programme because it connects the physical performance of animals in farming systems under different environmental and management conditions and different health states to farm economics. Moving forward, AHLE results will be an important step in calculating the wider monetary consequences of changes in animal health as part of the GBADs programme. FUNDING: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, EU Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme.

Current and potential use of animal disease data by stakeholders in the global south and north.

What cannot be measured will not be managed. The Global Burden of Animal Diseases (GBADs) will generate information on animal disease burdens by species, production system, type and gender of farmer and consumer, geographical region, and time period. To understand the demand for burden of animal disease (BAD) data and how end-users might benefit from this, we reviewed the literature on animal diseases prioritisation processes (ADPP) and conducted a survey of BAD information users. The survey covered their current use of data and prioritizations as well as their needs for different, more, and better information. We identified representative (geography, sector, species) BAD experts from the authors' networks and publicly available documents and e-mailed 1485 experts. Of 791 experts successfully contacted, 271 responded (34% response rate), and 185 complete and valid responses were obtained. Most respondents came from the public sector followed by academia/research, and most were affiliated to institutions in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Of the six ADPPs commonly featured in literature, only three were recognised by more than 40% of experts. An additional 23 ADPPs were used. Awareness of ADDPs varied significantly by respondents. Respondents ranked animal disease priorities. We used exploded logit to combine first, second and third disease priorities to better understand prioritzation and their determinants. Expert priorities differed significantly from priorities identified by the ADDPs, and also from the priorities stated veterinary services as reported in a survey for a World Organisation of Animal Health (WOAH) technical item. Respondents identified 15 different uses of BAD data. The most common use was presenting evidence (publications, official reports, followed by disease management, policy development and proposal writing). Few used disease data for prioritzation or resource allocation, fewer routinely used economic data for decision making, and less than half were aware of the use of decision support tools (DSTs). Nearly all respondents considered current BAD metrics inadequate, most considered animal health information insufficiently available and not evidence-based, and most expressed concerns that decision-making processes related to animal health lacked transparency and fairness. Cluster analysis suggested three clusters of BAD users and will inform DSTs to help them better meet their specific objectives. We conclude that there is a lack of satisfaction with current BAD information, and with existing ADDPs, contributing to sub-optimal decision making. Improved BAD data would have multiple uses by different stakeholders leading to better evidenced decisions and policies; moreover, clients will need support (including DSTs) to optimally use BAD information.

Farm level bio-economic modelling of aquatic animal disease and health interventions.

A farm level bio-economic model, for aquatic animal production, of the relationships between inputs (e.g. purchased animals), outputs (e.g. harvested animals) and gross margin (GM) was developed to assess ex-ante the economics of disease and animal health interventions. Feed costs were calculated from estimates of food conversion ratio (FCR), animals harvested and mortality. The model was applied to a typical grow-out rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farm on Lake Titicaca, Peru and a typical shrimp (Paenus vannamei) farm in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. The model was used in two analyses. Firstly, an approach to assess the burden of disease developed by the Global Burden of Animal Diseases (GBADs) project was adopted. Output under conditions of 'ideal health' was estimated by reducing mortality to zero and removing health costs. GM in both systems increased by approximately 25% when production was kept constant (and stocking rates reduced) and more than doubled if production was allowed to rise (and initial stocking increased). The increase in GM under conditions of ideal compared with current production provided an estimate of the maximum possible benefit from improved health management. Secondly, break-even analysis was used to assess the economics of vaccination against infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN) vaccine (rainbow trout - RBT) and probiotics (shrimp). If initial stocking was kept constant, and production allowed to rise, break-even points for the intervention (when GM was the same with and without the intervention) were achieved when mortality was reduced by 16% in RBT fry and juvenile and 28% in shrimp. If production was kept constant and benefit realised by reduced initial stocking, the break-even point was achieved for i) vaccination of RBT when mortality in fry and juveniles was reduced by 39%, and ii) probiotics in shrimp production when there was a 15% reduction in mortality (nursery and grow-out), 10% increase in shrimp weight at harvest and 10% improvement in FCR. The results demonstrate how relatively simple models, parameterised with basic farm production data, can assess the burden of disease and quantify ex-ante the potential benefit of interventions. In the absence of trial data, these analyses support decision-making by farmers. The models can be adapted for many aquaculture systems. Farm level results can be extrapolated to estimate disease burden, and benefits of interventions, at regional or national level and thus support informed decision-making and allocation of resources to health management.

Informatics progress of the Global Burden of Animal Diseases programme towards data for One Health.

The Global Burden of Animal Diseases (GBADs) programme will provide data-driven evidence that policy-makers can use to evaluate options, inform decisions, and measure the success of animal health and welfare interventions. The GBADs' Informatics team is developing a transparent process for identifying, analysing, visualising and sharing data to calculate livestock disease burdens and drive models and dashboards. These data can be combined with data on other global burdens (human health, crop loss, foodborne diseases) to provide a comprehensive range of information on One Health, required to address such issues as antimicrobial resistance and climate change. The programme began by gathering open data from international organisations (which are undergoing their own digital transformations). Efforts to achieve an accurate estimate of livestock numbers revealed problems in finding, accessing and reconciling data from different sources over time. Ontologies and graph databases are being developed to bridge data silos and improve the findability and interoperability of data. Dashboards, data stories, a documentation website and a Data Governance Handbook explain GBADs data, now available through an application programming interface. Sharing data quality assessments builds trust in such data, encouraging their application to livestock and One Health issues. Animal welfare data present a particular challenge, as much of this information is held privately and discussions continue regarding which data are the most relevant. Accurate livestock numbers are an essential input for calculating biomass, which subsequently feeds into calculations of antimicrobial use and climate change. The GBADs data are also essential to at least eight of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

Le programme " Impact mondial des maladies animales " (GBADs) a pour but de réunir des éléments probants axés sur des données, qui soient exploitables par les décideurs politiques pour évaluer les solutions envisagées, fonder leurs décisions et mesurer le succès des interventions dans les domaines de la santé et du bien-être des animaux. L'équipe informatique du GBADs a conçu un processus transparent pour l'identification, l'analyse, la visualisation et le partage des données, grâce auquel il sera possible d'estimer l'impact des maladies du bétail et de réaliser des modèles et des tableaux de bord sur le sujet. Les données ainsi réunies peuvent être combinées avec celles couvrant d'autres problématiques ayant un impact mondial (santé humaine, pertes de récoltes, maladies d'origine alimentaire) afin de fournir l'éventail complet d'informations Une seule santé requis pour faire face à des enjeux tels que la résistance aux agents antimicrobiens ou le changement climatique. La première phase du programme a consisté à recueillir des données ouvertes auprès de diverses organisations internationales (qui procèdent également à leur propre transformation numérique). Les efforts déployés pour parvenir à une estimation précise des effectifs des cheptels ont mis en lumière les difficultés à trouver les données détenues par différentes sources, à y accéder et à les recouper au fil du temps. Des ontologies et des bases de données graphiques sont en cours d'élaboration pour résoudre le problème des silos de données et pour améliorer la facilité de recherche et l'interopérabilité des données. Les données du GBADs sont désormais expliquées sous forme de tableaux de bord, de récits construits à partir des données, ainsi que dans un site web documentaire et un Manuel de gouvernance des données, tous disponibles via une interface de programmation d'applications. Le partage des évaluations de la qualité des données renforce la confiance dans ces dernières et encourage à les appliquer pour traiter les problématiques affectant l'élevage ou relevant de l'approche Une seule santé. Les données relatives au bien-être animal présentent une difficulté particulière : elles sont, pour l'essentiel, détenues à titre privé et la question de savoir quelles sont les données les plus pertinentes est toujours en discussion. Les effectifs des cheptels doivent avoir été déterminés de manière précise afin de calculer la biomasse animale, élément qui entre par la suite dans le calcul des quantités d'agents antimicrobiens utilisés et des indicateurs du changement climatique. Les données du programme GBADs sont également essentielles au regard d'au moins huit des objectifs de développement durable des Nations Unies.

El programa sobre el Impacto Global de las Enfermedades Animales (GBADs) proporcionará información contrastada y basada en el uso de datos de la que luego puedan servirse los planificadores de políticas para valorar distintas opciones, decidir con conocimiento de causa y medir la eficacia de una u otra intervención en materia de sanidad y bienestar animales. El equipo informático encargado del GBADs está preparando un proceso transparente destinado a seleccionar, analizar, visualizar y poner en común datos que ayuden a calcular la carga de enfermedades del ganado y a guiar la elaboración de modelos y paneles de control. Estos datos pueden ser combinados con datos referidos a otros grandes problemas planetarios (salud humana, pérdida de cultivos, enfermedades de transmisión alimentaria) para obtener el repertorio completo de información en clave de Una sola salud que se necesita para abordar problemáticas como la resistencia a los antimicrobianos o el cambio climático. El programa empezó por reunir datos abiertos procedentes de organizaciones internacionales (inmersas, por otra parte, en su propio proceso de transformación digital). La labor emprendida para estimar con exactitud las cifras de ejemplares del mundo pecuario reveló ciertos problemas a la hora de encontrar, obtener y conciliar datos de distintas fuentes a lo largo del tiempo. Ahora se están elaborando ontologías y bases de datos gráficos para crear conexiones entre los "silos de datos" y lograr que los datos sean a la vez más compatibles entre sí y más fáciles de localizar. Paneles de control, interpretaciones narrativas de los datos ("data stories"), un sitio web de documentación y un manual de gestión de datos ayudan a explicar y aprehender los datos del GBADs, accesibles ahora por medio de una interfaz de programación de aplicaciones. El hecho de poner en común las evaluaciones de la calidad de los datos genera mayor confianza en esta información, promoviendo con ello su aplicación en temas de ganadería y de Una sola salud. Los datos de bienestar animal plantean una particular dificultad, pues gran parte de esta información está en manos privadas y todavía no está claro cuáles son los datos de mayor interés. Disponer de cifras exactas sobre el número de cabezas de ganado es fundamental para efectuar los cálculos de biomasa que después se utilizan para hacer otros cómputos referidos al uso de antimicrobianos y al cambio climático. Los datos del GBADs son asimismo esenciales para al menos ocho de los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible de las Naciones Unidas.

The World Organisation for Animal Health Observatory: a data-driven approach to address the needs of its Members.

This article reviews the Observatory of the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH, founded as OIE), including its objectives, direction and progress achieved so far. It explains the benefits offered by this data-driven programme in improving access to data and information analysis while ensuring confidentiality. In addition, the authors examine the challenges that the Observatory faces and its inextricable link to the Organisation's data management. The development of the Observatory is of the utmost importance, not only for its relevance to the development of WOAH International Standards and their implementation worldwide, but also because of its role as one of the drivers of WOAH's digital transformation plan. This transformation is essential, given the major role of information technologies in supporting regulation for animal health, animal welfare and veterinary public health.

Cet article consacré à l'Observatoire de l'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OMSA, fondée en tant qu'OIE) fait le point sur ses objectifs, ses orientations et les accomplissements réalisés à ce jour. Les auteurs expliquent les bénéfices et améliorations apportés par ce programme axé sur les données, en termes à la fois d'accès aux données, d'analyse de l'information et de confidentialité. Ils abordent aussi les défis auxquels l'Observatoire doit faire face et son lien indissociable avec la gestion des données de l'Organisation. Le développement de l'Observatoire revêt une importance fondamentale, non seulement en regard de sa pertinence pour l'élaboration et la mise en oeuvre des normes internationales de l'OMSA partout dans le monde, mais aussi parce qu'il est le moteur de la planification de la transformation numérique de l'OMSA. Cette transformation est cruciale, compte tenu du rôle majeur que jouent les technologies de l'information en appui de la réglementation de la santé animale, du bien-être animal et de la santé publique vétérinaire.

Los autores presentan el Observatorio de la Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal (OMSA, fundada como OIE), deteniéndose en particular en sus objetivos, su orientación y el camino recorrido hasta ahora. También exponen las ventajas que ofrece este programa centrado en los datos para mejorar tanto el acceso a los datos como los análisis de información, asegurando al mismo tiempo la confidencialidad. Además, examinan las dificultades a que hace frente el Observatorio y el indisociable vínculo que este guarda con la gestión de datos de la Organización. El desarrollo del Observatorio reviste una importancia capital, no solo por su utilidad para la elaboración de las normas internacionales de la OMSA y su aplicación en todo el mundo, sino también porque constituye uno de los motores del plan de transformación digital de la OMSA. Se trata de un proceso de transformación esencial, dada la importante función que cumplen las tecnologías de la información a la hora de regular la sanidad y el bienestar animales y la salud pública veterinaria.

A risk-based mutual insurance premium framework for establishing indices of vulnerability to the intentional introduction of transboundary animal diseases.

Biological agents as weapons of agro-crime or agro-terrorism pose threats to peace and economic stability. Such agents pre-exist worldwide as hazards, adversely affecting animal health, as well as imposing substantial burdens on many nations. Few studies have quantified the global risks and vulnerabilities of countries and regions to potential terrorist or criminal operations targeting animal health. We present here a risk-based mutual insurance premium framework for animal health outcomes built upon the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) quantitative risk assessment paradigm. Our objective was to generate dimensionless and relative domain indices related to release and exposure for several biological factors, as well as to assess the preparedness and response ability of each country. We also considered disease-specific measures relating to pathogens, targeted animal populations, the ongoing disease situation, within- and among-country peace or conflict, disease-specific control measures, and the availability of technical tools and personnel for successful disease management. National economic, political, and research and development competencies were used to assess each WOAH Member's potential for resilience. We formulated indices of vulnerability for 25 WOAH Members selected from five worldwide regions; initially, against four transboundary infectious animal diseases that target diverse animal species. We developed these indices using variables obtained from public databases arising from multiple intergovernmental organizations. Subsequently, we compared the relative vulnerability indices among countries for each given disease using three different index building methods: arithmetic mean, distance matrix, and principal component analysis (PCA). The PCA-based approach provided the greatest ability to discriminate among the components and among countries and regions. Due to its transparency and reliance on publicly available datasets, the risk premium framework proposed herein may readily be adjusted by policymakers and agencies and utilized to improve risk management strategies against agro-crime or agro-terror events, as well as for unintentional disease introductions.

A scoping review of burden of disease studies estimating disability-adjusted life years due to Taenia solium.

BACKGROUND: Taenia solium is the most significant global foodborne parasite and the leading cause of preventable human epilepsy in low and middle-income countries in the form of neurocysticercosis. OBJECTIVES: This scoping review aimed to examine the methodology of peer-reviewed studies that estimate the burden of T. solium using disability-adjusted life years. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: Studies must have calculated disability-adjusted life years relating to T. solium. CHARTING METHODS: The review process was managed by a single reviewer using Rayyan. Published data relating to disease models, data sources, disability-adjusted life years, sensitivity, uncertainty, missing data, and key limitations were collected. RESULTS: 15 studies were included for review, with seven global and eight national or sub-national estimates. Studies primarily employed attributional disease models that relied on measuring the occurrence of epilepsy before applying an attributable fraction to estimate the occurrence of neurocysticercosis-associated epilepsy. This method relies heavily on the extrapolation of observational studies across populations and time periods; however, it is currently required due to the difficulties in diagnosing neurocysticercosis. Studies discussed that a lack of data was a key limitation and their results likely underestimate the true burden of T. solium. Methods to calculate disability-adjusted life years varied across studies with differences in approaches to time discounting, age weighting, years of life lost, and years of life lived with disability. Such differences limit the ability to compare estimates between studies. CONCLUSIONS: This review illustrates the complexities associated with T. solium burden of disease studies and highlights the potential need for a burden of disease reporting framework. The burden of T. solium is likely underestimated due to the challenges in diagnosing neurocysticercosis and a lack of available data. Advancement in diagnostics, further observational studies, and new approaches to parameterising disease models are required if estimates are to improve.

Assessment of soy-based imports into the United States and associated foreign animal disease status.

Soy-based products are known to pose a viable risk to U.S. swine herds because of their ability to harbour and transmit virus. This publication aimed to evaluate soy imports into the United States as a whole and from foreign animal disease positive (FAD-positive) countries to determine which products are being imported in the highest quantities and observe potential trends in imports from FAD-positive countries. Import data were accessed through the United States International Trade Commission website (USITC DataWeb) and summarized using R (version 4.0.2, R core team, Vienna, Austria). Twenty-one different Harmonized Tariff Schedule (HTS) codes were queried to determine quantities (metric tonnes, MT) and breakdown of different soy product types being imported into the United States from 2015 to 2020. A total of 78 different countries exported soy products to the United States in 2019 and 2020 with top contributors being Canada (546,467 and 481,497 MT, respectively), India (397,858 and 430,621 MT, respectively) and Argentina (122,116 and 79,471 MT, respectively). Soy oilcake (582,273 MT) was imported in the largest quantities, followed by organic soybeans (270,194 MT) and soy oil (134,436 MT) for 2020. Of the 78 countries, 46 had cases of FAD reported through the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) World Animal Health Information Database (WAHIS). Top exporters of soy products to the United States from FAD-positive countries in 2019 and 2020 were India (397,858 and 430,621 MT, respectively), Argentina (122,116 MT in 2019) and Ukraine (40,293 and 56,392 MT, respectively). The risk of FAD introduction to the United States through soy imports can fluctuate based on where FAD outbreaks are occurring, shipping methods and end usage of products. A system to monitor these factors could help make future decisions about trade and risk of FAD introduction to U.S. swine herds.

Transcriptome-level assessment of the impact of deformed wing virus on honey bee larvae.

Deformed wing virus (DWV) prevalence is high in honey bee (Apis mellifera) populations. The virus infects honey bees through vertical and horizontal transmission, leading to behavioural changes, wing deformity, and early mortality. To better understand the impacts of viral infection in the larval stage of honey bees, artificially reared honey bee larvae were infected with DWV (1.55 × 1010 copies/per larva). No significant mortality occurred in infected honey bee larvae, while the survival rates decreased significantly at the pupal stage. Examination of DWV replication revealed that viral replication began at 2 days post inoculation (d.p.i.), increased dramatically to 4 d.p.i., and then continuously increased in the pupal stage. To better understand the impact of DWV on the larval stage, DWV-infected and control groups were subjected to transcriptomic analysis at 4 d.p.i. Two hundred fifty-five differentially expressed genes (DEGs) (fold change ≥ 2 or ≤ -2) were identified. Of these DEGs, 168 genes were downregulated, and 87 genes were upregulated. Gene Ontology (GO) analysis showed that 141 DEGs (55.3%) were categorized into molecular functions, cellular components and biological processes. One hundred eleven genes (38 upregulated and 73 downregulated) were annotated by KO (KEGG Orthology) pathway mapping and involved metabolic pathways, biosynthesis of secondary metabolites and glycine, serine and threonine metabolism pathways. Validation of DEGs was performed, and the related gene expression levels showed a similar tendency to the DEG predictions at 4 d.p.i.; cell wall integrity and stress response component 1 (wsc1), cuticular protein and myo-inositol 2-dehydrogenase (iolG) were significantly upregulated, and small conductance calcium-activated potassium channel protein (SK) was significantly downregulated at 4 d.p.i. Related gene expression levels at different d.p.i. revealed that these DEGs were significantly regulated from the larval stage to the pupal stage, indicating the potential impacts of gene expression levels from the larval to the pupal stages. Taken together, DWV infection in the honey bee larval stage potentially influences the gene expression levels from larvae to pupae and reduces the survival rate of the pupal stage. This information emphasizes the consequences of DWV prevalence in honey bee larvae for apiculture.

The role of a mechanistic host in maintaining arctic rabies variant distributions: Assessment of functional genetic diversity in Alaskan red fox (Vulpes vulpes).

Populations are exposed to different types and strains of pathogens across heterogeneous landscapes, where local interactions between host and pathogen may present reciprocal selective forces leading to correlated patterns of spatial genetic structure. Understanding these coevolutionary patterns provides insight into mechanisms of disease spread and maintenance. Arctic rabies (AR) is a lethal disease with viral variants that occupy distinct geographic distributions across North America and Europe. Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) are a highly susceptible AR host, whose range overlaps both geographically distinct AR strains and regions where AR is absent. It is unclear if genetic structure exists among red fox populations relative to the presence/absence of AR or the spatial distribution of AR variants. Acquiring these data may enhance our understanding of the role of red fox in AR maintenance/spread and inform disease control strategies. Using a genotyping-by-sequencing assay targeting 116 genomic regions of immunogenetic relevance, we screened for sequence variation among red fox populations from Alaska and an outgroup from Ontario, including areas with different AR variants, and regions where the disease was absent. Presumed neutral SNP data from the assay found negligible levels of neutral genetic structure among Alaskan populations. The immunogenetically-associated data identified 30 outlier SNPs supporting weak to moderate genetic structure between regions with and without AR in Alaska. The outliers included SNPs with the potential to cause missense mutations within several toll-like receptor genes that have been associated with AR outcome. In contrast, there was a lack of genetic structure between regions with different AR variants. Combined, we interpret these data to suggest red fox populations respond differently to the presence of AR, but not AR variants. This research increases our understanding of AR dynamics in the Arctic, where host/disease patterns are undergoing flux in a rapidly changing Arctic landscape, including the continued northward expansion of red fox into regions previously predominated by the arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus).

Association between Fur Animal Necrotizing Pyoderma in breeding farm mink (Neovison vison) and reduced fertility.

BACKGROUND: The disease Fur Animal Necrotizing Pyoderma (FNP) has since 2000 been reported in many fur producing countries including Canada, Finland and Denmark. Development of FNP is characterised by rapidly forming treatment-resistant wounds on paws and in the head region. Economic losses related to FNP have been associated with mortality and decreased fur quality as well as increased veterinary costs. Also it has been suggested that FNP may be associated with reduced production results for breeding mink. The aim of this study was to evaluate if there is an association between FNP lesions in breeding animals and reduced production results based on a retrospective cohort study. RESULTS: 1465 breeding animals (244 males and 1221 females) were followed during the breeding season 2019 on five Danish mink farms. Two farms were removed from the analysis since no occurrence of FNP appeared in the observation group. After exclusion, 846 breeding animals (148 males and 698 females) remained in the analysis and were divided into two groups: exposed (EXP) or non-exposed (N-EXP) depending on the disease history of the males during mating. Females exposed to FNP positive males during breeding in average produce 14% fewer kits (P = 0.032) and these females were also more than double as likely to produce small litters (N ≥ 3) than N-EXP females. Female's from the EXP group were introduced more times to males than females in the N-EXP group (P = 0.0001, 2.5 more times in average). Females in the EXP group did not have a statistically higher risk of becoming barren (P = 0.138) though the relative risk of becoming barren was 77% higher after encountering a FNP male. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that FNP has more economic losses for the farms than direct loss of animals. Females in contact with males with FNP lesion during breeding have a higher risk of becoming barren, and produce significantly fewer kits compared to females whom haven't been in contact with a FNP positive male.

Towards integrated surveillance-response systems for the prevention of future pandemics.

Most human pathogens originate from non-human hosts and certain pathogens persist in animal reservoirs. The transmission of such pathogens to humans may lead to self-sustaining chains of transmission. These pathogens represent the highest risk for future pandemics. For their prevention, the transmission over the species barrier - although rare - should, by all means, be avoided. In the current COVID-19 pandemic, surprisingly though, most of the current research concentrates on the control by drugs and vaccines, while comparatively little scientific inquiry focuses on future prevention. Already in 2012, the World Bank recommended to engage in a systemic One Health approach for zoonoses control, considering integrated surveillance-response and control of human and animal diseases for primarily economic reasons. First examples, like integrated West Nile virus surveillance in mosquitos, wild birds, horses and humans in Italy show evidence of financial savings from a closer cooperation of human and animal health sectors. Provided a zoonotic origin can be ascertained for the COVID-19 pandemic, integrated wildlife, domestic animal and humans disease surveillance-response may contribute to prevent future outbreaks. In conclusion, the earlier a zoonotic pathogen can be detected in the environment, in wildlife or in domestic animals; and the better human, animal and environmental surveillance communicate with each other to prevent an outbreak, the lower are the cumulative costs.

The gulf between emergency plans and the resources needed: a global review.

Preparedness for an animal emergency event reduces a country's economic and production losses and decreases animal disease threats to neighbouring countries. Investing in animal disease preparedness reduces economic expenditures during an emergency as well as in recovery. An essential component of animal disease preparedness is a national contingency plan that is fit for purpose. This useful document should be frequently updated and can be modified with new information from self-assessments and after-action reports, which should identify resource needs and improvements to be made. National contingency plans are recommended in global international guidance and by animal health and veterinary organisations. Despite this, some countries lack national contingency plans that are fit for purpose, or the resources to implement them. This review concentrates on trends in national contingency planning around the world. In 2018 and 2019, the authors surveyed existing global animal disease contingency plans. Of the 181 Members of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), 163 were reported to have some form of national contingency plan. (Over the course of the review from 2018 to 2019, the 182nd Member joined the OIE. This review examines only the 181 that were Members when the survey began.) The authors review current global animal emergency preparedness and discuss the gaps that have been identified. They discuss global trends, examining developing concepts and novel approaches that may aid improvements in global national contingency planning and enhance the global capacity to prepare for animal disease where gaps exist.

La préparation aux urgences de santé animale atténue les pertes économiques et productives des pays affectés et réduit la menace de propagation de maladies aux pays voisins. Les investissements dédiés à la préparation aux maladies animales réduisent les dépenses économiques durant l'urgence ainsi que pendant la phase de redressement. L'une des composantes essentielles de la préparation aux situations d'urgence zoosanitaire est le plan national d'intervention, qui doit être adapté aux objectifs visés. Il convient de mettre à jour régulièrement ce document de programmation et de le modifier au vu des renseignements nouveaux émanant des autoévaluations ou des rapports postérieurs à l'adoption de mesures ­ lesquels doivent préciser les ressources requises et les améliorations à apporter. Les directives internationales et les organisations vétérinaires et de santé animale recommandent de se doter de plans nationaux d'intervention d'urgence. Pourtant, certains pays ne disposent ni de plans nationaux d'intervention adaptés aux objectifs visés, ni des ressources nécessaires à leur mise en œuvre. L'analyse présentée par les auteurs est axée sur les tendances observées dans le monde en matière de planification nationale des interventions d'urgence. En 2018 et 2019, les auteurs ont fait le point sur les plans d'urgence existants dans le domaine de la santé animale. Il ressort de leur enquête que 163 des 181 Membres de l'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OIE) disposaient d'un plan national d'urgence, sous une forme ou une autre. (Au cours de cette enquête conduite de 2018 à 2019, un 182e Membre a adhéré à l'OIE. L'analyse présentée par les auteurs ne concerne que les 181 pays ayant la qualité de Membre au début de l'enquête.) Les auteurs passent en revue le niveau actuel de préparation aux urgences zoosanitaires dans le monde et analysent les lacunes constatées. Ils évoquent les tendances mondiales et soulignent les concepts en cours d'élaboration ainsi que les approches novatrices susceptibles de contribuer à l'amélioration des plans nationaux d'intervention d'urgence à l'échelle mondiale et au renforcement des capacités de préparation aux maladies animales dans les pays où des lacunes existent encore.

La preparación para episodios de emergencia relacionados con los animales reduce las pérdidas económicas y de producción que sufre un país y rebaja el nivel de las amenazas zoosanitarias que pesan sobre los países vecinos. El hecho de invertir en la preparación para enfermedades animales reduce los gastos no solo cuando adviene la emergencia, sino también durante la fase de recuperación. Uno de los componentes básicos de este proceso de preparación es un plan nacional de emergencia que esté adaptado a su finalidad. Se trata de un documento muy útil, que conviene actualizar con frecuencia y puede ser enriquecido a medida que los procesos de autoevaluación y los informes retrospectivos (que ayudan a determinar los recursos necesarios y las mejoras requeridas) vayan deparando nueva información. Tanto las guías internacionales de ámbito mundial como las organizaciones de sanidad animal y veterinaria recomiendan disponer de un plan nacional de emergencia. Pese a ello, hay países que carecen de un plan de este tipo adaptado a sus fines o de los recursos necesarios para ponerlo en práctica. Los autores se centran aquí en las tendencias en todo el mundo de los procesos de elaboración de planes nacionales de emergencia. En 2018 y 2019 examinaron los planes para emergencias zoosanitarias existentes en el mundo y constataron que, de los 181 Países Miembros de la Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal (OIE), 163 disponen de algún tipo de plan nacional de emergencia. (Entre 2018 y 2019, en el curso del estudio, un nuevo País Miembro, el 182º, se incorporó a la OIE, pero los resultados aquí descritos se refieren solo a los 181 que eran Miembros cuando empezó el estudio.) Los autores describen la situación mundial actual en cuanto a preparación para emergencias relacionadas con los animales y señalan las carencias detectadas. Después exponen las tendencias de ámbito mundial, examinando conceptos nacientes y planteamientos novedosos que pueden ayudar a mejorar la elaboración en el mundo de planes nacionales de emergencia y a reforzar la capacidad general de preparación para enfermedades animales allí donde existen deficiencias.

The pros and cons of animal health harmonisation.

It has been argued that the global harmonisation of animal health procedures, regulations and responses will improve animal health and provide economic benefits. Harmonisation of regulations can be driven by trade reform, such as multilateral or bilateral agreements, or as a response to private quality assurance programmes. At an international level, trade reform is currently focused on reducing the costs of trading between countries. To achieve this, bilateral agreements, where possible, are harmonising regulations throughout all sectors of the economy. However, as with any new developments, there are both positive and negative outcomes that should be explored to understand the net effect of these changes on animal health, the economy and society. In this article, the authors debate the economic foundations of harmonisation, explore alternative methods to achieve it, and discuss its pros and cons to more fully understand the opportunity costs from countries adopting the same level of risk to animal health.

Il a souvent été avancé qu'en matière de santé animale, l'harmonisation des procédures, des réglementations et des interventions à l'échelle mondiale améliore la situation zoosanitaire globale tout en apportant des bénéfices économiques aux pays. Une telle harmonisation réglementaire peut être le fruit d'une réforme du commerce, notamment par le biais d'accords multilatéraux ou bilatéraux, ou bien constituer une réponse aux programmes d'assurance qualité privés. Au niveau international, la réforme du commerce est actuellement centrée sur la réduction des coûts qu'il entraîne pour les pays. Dans cette perspective, des accords bilatéraux sont conclus chaque fois que possible afin d'harmoniser les réglementations dans tous les secteurs de l'économie. Néanmoins, comme dans toute évolution nouvelle, il en résulte des retombées aussi bien positives que négatives qu'il convient d'analyser afin de bien comprendre l'incidence nette de ces changements sur la santé animale, l'économie et la société. Après avoir débattu des fondements économiques de l'harmonisation, les auteurs examinent les méthodes alternatives qui permettent d'obtenir le même résultat ; ils font aussi le point sur les avantages et les inconvénients de l'harmonisation afin de mieux comprendre le coût d'opportunité qu'elle induit pour les pays adoptant le même niveau de risque en santé animale.

Se ha postulado que la armonización mundial de los procedimientos, reglamentos y respuestas en materia de sanidad animal redundará en un mejor estado sanitario de los animales y reportará beneficios económicos. El impulso para proceder a una armonización reglamentaria puede tener su origen en una reforma del comercio, a raíz por ejemplo de acuerdos multilaterales o bilaterales, o responder a programas privados de garantía de la calidad. A escala internacional, la reforma de los mecanismos comerciales apunta ahora básicamente a reducir los costos del comercio entre países. Para lograrlo se suscriben acuerdos bilaterales que, cuando es posible, entrañan una armonización reglamentaria en todos los sectores de la economía. Sin embargo, como ocurre con todas las novedades, ello tiene repercusiones positivas y negativas, que conviene analizar para aprehender el efecto neto de estos cambios en la sanidad animal, la economía y la sociedad. Los autores examinan los fundamentos económicos de la armonización, plantean métodos alternativos para llevarla adelante y dan cuenta de sus ventajas e inconvenientes para conocer mejor los costos de oportunidad que trae consigo la adopción de un mismo nivel de riesgo zoosanitario por parte de los países.

Facilitating market access: risk assessment, equivalence and regionalisation provisions in the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures.

The World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures contains several key provisions that are important for trade in animals and animal products, namely on risk assessment, equivalence and regionalisation. The risk assessment provision allows countries to adopt, on the basis of a risk assessment, measures which achieve a higher level of sanitary protection than that embodied in existing relevant international standards. The equivalence provision requires importing countries to acknowledge that, while the production methods of the exporting country may differ from their own, they may still provide an equivalent level of health protection. Finally, the regionalisation provision enables countries to export animals and animal products from diseasefree areas, even if other areas within that country have experienced outbreaks of a particular animal disease. This paper explores how these provisions, and the scientific concept of the appropriate level of protection, facilitate trade while at the same time allowing Members to establish their sanitary measures. This paper also provides information on the relevant discussions of these provisions within the Committee on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures.

L'Accord de l'Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC) sur l'application des mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires contient d'importantes dispositions relatives aux échanges internationaux d'animaux et de produits d'origine animale qui concernent les aspects suivants : l'évaluation du risque, l'équivalence et la régionalisation. La disposition sur l'évaluation du risque permet à un pays d'adopter des mesures conférant un niveau de protection plus élevé que celui prévu dans les normes internationales en vigueur, dès lors que cette décision se fonde sur une évaluation du risque. En vertu du principe d'équivalence, un pays importateur est tenu de reconnaître que les méthodes de production appliquées par un pays exportateur peuvent différer de celles qu'il applique luimême et apporter néanmoins des garanties de protection sanitaire équivalentes aux siennes. Enfin, la régionalisation permet aux pays d'exporter des animaux et des produits d'origine animale à partir des régions de leur territoire qui sont indemnes de maladies, même si des foyers d'une maladie animale particulière ont été enregistrés dans d'autres régions. L'auteure explique en quoi ces dispositions et le concept scientifique de « niveau approprié de protection ¼ facilitent le commerce tout en permettant aux Membres d'instaurer leurs propres mesures sanitaires. L'auteure décrit également les discussions dont ces dispositions font l'objet au sein du Comité des mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires.

El Acuerdo sobre la Aplicación de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias (Acuerdo MSF) de la Organización Mundial del Comercio (OMC) contiene varias disposiciones básicas que son importantes para el comercio de animales y productos de origen animal, a saber, las relativas a la determinación del riesgo, a la equivalencia y a la regionalización. La disposición sobre determinación del riesgo permite que los países, basándose en una determinación del riesgo, adopten medidas que conlleven un nivel de protección sanitaria mayor que el que establecen las normas internacionales existentes en la materia. La disposición sobre equivalencia exige que los países importadores reconozcan que los métodos de producción del país exportador, aun pudiendo diferir de los propios, pueden ofrecer un nivel equivalente de protección sanitaria. La disposición sobre regionalización, por último, permite que un país exporte animales y productos de origen animal procedentes de zonas libres de enfermedad aun cuando otras zonas de ese mismo país hayan sufrido brotes de una enfermedad animal en particular. La autora explica cómo estas disposiciones y el concepto científico de «nivel apropiado de protección¼ facilitan el comercio y a la vez permiten a los Miembros instaurar sus propias medidas sanitarias. Asimismo, proporciona información sobre los debates y reflexiones del Comité de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias en torno a estas disposiciones.

COVID-19 is likely to impact animal health.

Responses to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic have included travel bans and social distancing with "shelter in place" orders, resulting in sudden changes in human activity and subsequent effects on the global and national economy. We speculate that animal health will likely be impacted by COVID-19 through the immediate consequences of sudden human confinement and inactivity, and through the long-term consequences of the upcoming economic crisis on farmer livelihoods and veterinary service capacities. We expect the COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent economic crisis to impact negatively on the control of diseases that are already present in Europe, as well as on the European capacity to prevent and respond in a timely manner to new and emerging animal diseases. We also expect an increased attention to the animal health implications of coronavirus infections in animals. Mechanisms explaining these outcomes include increased wildlife-livestock contacts due to human confinement; disruption of ongoing testing schemes for endemic diseases; lower disease surveillance efforts; and lower capacity for managing populations of relevant wildlife reservoirs. The main mitigation action consists in adapting animal health management strategies to the available resources.