Pesticide application, educational treatment and infectious respiratory diseases: A mechanistic model with two impulsive controls.

In this paper, we develop and analyze an SIS-type epidemiological-mathematical model of the interaction between pesticide use and infectious respiratory disease transmission for investigating the impact of pesticide intoxication on the spread of these types of diseases. We further investigate the role of educational treatment for appropriate pesticide use on the transmission dynamics. Two impulsive control events are proposed: pesticide use and educational treatment. From the proposed model, it was obtained that the rate of forgetfulness towards educational treatment is a determining factor for the reduction of intoxicated people, as well as for the reduction of costs associated with educational interventions. To get reduced intoxications, the population's fraction to which is necessary to apply the educational treatment depends on its individual effectiveness level and the educational treatments' forgetfulness rate. In addition, the turnover of agricultural workers plays a fundamental role in the dynamics of agrotoxic use, particularly in the application of educational treatment. For illustration, a flu-like disease with a basic reproductive number below the epidemic threshold of 1.0 is shown can acquire epidemic potential in a population at risk of pesticide exposure. Hence, our findings suggest that educational treatment targeting pesticide exposure is an effective tool to reduce the transmission rate of an infectious respiratory disease in a population exposed to the toxic substance.

Acute Pesticide-Related Illness Among Farmworkers: Barriers to Reporting to Public Health Authorities.

Farmworkers are at high risk of acute occupational pesticide-related illness (AOPI) and AOPI surveillance is vital to preventing these illnesses. Data on such illnesses are collected and analyzed to identify high-risk groups, high-risk pesticides, and root causes. Interventions to address these risks and root causes include farmworker outreach, education, and regulation. Unfortunately, it is well known that AOPI is underreported, meaning that the true burden of this condition remains unknown. This article reviews the barriers to reporting of farmworker AOPI to public health authorities and provides some practical solutions. Information is presented using the social-ecological model spheres of influence. Factors that contribute to farmworker AOPI underreporting include fear of job loss or deportation, limited English proficiency (LEP), limited access to health care, lack of clinician recognition of AOPI, farmworker ineligibility for workers' compensation (WC) benefits in many states, insufficient resources to conduct AOPI surveillance, and constraints in coordinating AOPI investigations across state agencies. Solutions to address these barriers include: emphasizing that employers encourage farmworkers to report safety concerns; raising farmworker awareness of federally qualified health centers (FQHCs) and increasing the availability of these clinics; improving environmental toxicology training to health-care students and professionals; encouraging government agencies to investigate pesticide complaints and provide easy-to-read reports of investigation findings; fostering public health reporting from electronic medical records, poison control centers (PCCs), and WC; expanding and strengthening AOPI state-based surveillance programs; and developing interagency agreements to outline the roles and responsibilities of each state agency involved with pesticide safety.

A Case History Introducing the Oregon Ag Seminar Series-Keys to Program and Research-to-Practice Success.

This case history of Oregon state's Ag Seminar Series is consistent with the Socio-Ecological Model, demonstrating how policy at a state level can influence an organizational approach with impacts that ultimately influence safety practices on the farm. From modest beginnings, the Ag Seminar Series, offered through a workers compensation insurance company, now serves over 2,300 Oregon farmers annually in English and Spanish. This case offers unique but also replicable methods for educators, insurers, and researchers in safety education, safety motivators, and research-to-practice (r2p).

Impact of Multidrug Resistance on Tuberculosis Recurrence and Long-Term Outcome in China.

Little is known about the impact of drug resistance on recurrence in TB. We conducted a cohort study to measure the impact of multi-drug resistance (MDR) on TB recurrence over nine years in Henan Province China. We reviewed medical records and conducted field interviews of 100 MDR and 150 non-MDR TB patients who were treated between 2001 and 2002. We compared long-term recurrence rates, risk factors, and outcomes in 2010 for 234 individuals who could be followed up. About one third (29.5%, 69/234) suffered recurrence after completion of treatment. The overall recurrence rate was 35/1,000 patient-years (PY), with a much higher rate (65/1,000 PY) among MDR-TB patients. MDR (HR: 2.75; CI: 1.58-4.79) and patient annual household income less than 10,000 Yuan (HR: 2.05; CI 1.11-3.80) were associated with recurrence. The mean time for recurrence among MDR-TB patients was 5.7 years, compared to 7.2 years among non-MDR-TB patients. Among the recurrence group members, 61.3% died, and 18.8% had failed treatments. We believe that the high TB recurrence rate after 9 years suggests that a high cure rate cannot accurately predict long-term outcome. We recommend that TB surveillance and control should be strengthened with a focus on MDR-TB and directly observed treatment, to reduce TB recurrence and transmission of MDR-TB.

Trends in Nonfatal Agricultural Injury in Maine and New Hampshire: Results From a Low-Cost Passive Surveillance System.

OBJECTIVES: Agriculture is a dangerous industry, and although data on fatal injuries exist, less is known about nonfatal injuries. The purpose of this study is to describe trends in agricultural morbidity in Maine and New Hampshire from 2008 to 2010 using a newly established passive surveillance system. This passive system is supplied by injury cases gathered from prehospital care reports and hospital data. METHODS: Demographics and specifics of the event were recorded for each incident case. RESULTS: The average age of injured people in Maine and New Hampshire was 41.7. Women constituted 43.8% of all agricultural injuries. Machinery- (n = 303) and animal- (n = 523) related injuries accounted for most agricultural incidents. Of all injured women, over 60% sustained injuries due to animal-related causes. Agricultural injuries were spread across the two states, with clustering in southern New Hampshire and south central Maine, with additional injuries in the Aroostook County area, which is located in the northeast part of the state. Seasonal variation in agricultural injuries was evident with peaks in the summer months. There was some overlap between the agricultural and logging industry for tree-related work. CONCLUSIONS: Our methods are able to capture traumatic injury in agriculture in sufficient detail to prioritize interventions and to evaluate outcomes. The system is low-cost and has the potential to be sustained over a long period. Differences in rates of animal- and machinery-related injuries suggest the need for state-specific safety prioritization.

Characteristics and Costs of Disability Pensions in Finnish Agriculture Based on 5-Year Insurance Records.

The characteristics and costs of disability pensions in Finnish farmers were investigated. The data included a total of 4,088 permanent or temporary disability pensions of the self-employed Finnish farming population over a 5-year period (2008-2012), an annual rate of 1.04 new cases per 100 person-years (males 0.94/100 and females 1.24/100). These cases resulted in the loss of almost 6,800 person-years and 60.2 million Euros in pension costs in the 5-year period. Almost half of the outcomes (44.6%) were primarily related to diseases of the musculoskeletal system (MSDs). Other common outcomes were mental and behavioral disorders (17.5%), injuries (9.8%), diseases of the circulatory system (7.8%), and diseases of the nervous system (6.6%). Relative proportions of these outcomes and their costs were similar with few exceptions. Although farmers have high risk of acute traumatic injuries, they also have a high risk of chronic conditions that affect their work ability. Particularly MSDs were common primary reasons for disability pension among farmers in general and among female farmers in particular. In addition to healthy lifestyle choices, improvements in the working environment and methods to reduce heavy or repetitive manual labor should be emphasized in vocational and extension education of farmers. Modern working conditions with meaningful and varied work tasks could enhance both physical and mental well-being of farmers and thus reinforce and extend their careers.

Heat-related illness in Washington State agriculture and forestry sectors.

BACKGROUND: We sought to describe heat-related illness (HRI) in agriculture and forestry workers in Washington State. METHODS: Demographic and clinical Washington State Fund workers' compensation agriculture and forestry HRI claims data (1995-2009) and Washington Agriculture Heat Rule citations (2009-2012) were accessed and described. Maximum daily temperature (Tmax) and Heat Index (HImax) were estimated by claim date and location using AgWeatherNet's weather station network. RESULTS: There were 84 Washington State Fund agriculture and forestry HRI claims and 60 Heat Rule citations during the study period. HRI claims and citations were most common in crop production and support subsectors. The mean Tmax (HImax) was 95°F (99°F) for outdoor HRI claims. Potential HRI risk factors and HRI-related injuries were documented for some claims. CONCLUSIONS: Agriculture and forestry HRI cases are characterized by potential work-related, environmental, and personal risk factors. Further work is needed to elucidate the relationship between heat exposure and occupational injuries.

[Tobacco farming in Italy receives more funds in comparison to tobacco control]. / La tabacchicoltura in Italia riceve più fondi del controllo del tabagismo.

In the European Union almost 300,000 tons of raw tobacco are produced every year, contributing for 4% of the world production. In Italy, tobacco crop produces around 90,000 tons/year and is concentrated in Veneto, Tuscany, Umbria and Campania Regions. In 1970, Common Market Organisation provided a virtually unlimited support for European tobacco production. After 2004, funds progressively has been cut by half, even though the other half has been given for restructuring or reconversion of tobacco farms through the Rural Development Plan. The Framework Convention on Tobacco Control recommends conversion of tobacco crops, although there are no effective measures. Tobacco production requires large quantities of chemicals (pesticides, growth regulators, fertilisers), with significant workers' exposure if applied without personal protective equipments. Pesticides may have genotoxic, teratogenic, immunotoxic, hormonal, and carcinogenic effects. Tobacco itself may cause also a disease called "Green tobacco sickness" syndrome, as a consequence of nicotine dermal absorption due to skin exposure to tobacco leaves. In Italy, financial resources for tobacco production and restructuring/conversion to other crops of previously tobacco planted fields are available. On the contrary, anti-smoking media interventions do not receive funds comparatively relevant as those for tobacco production.

WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in China: barriers, challenges and recommendations.

AIM: The aim of this study was to analyze the barriers in the implementation of the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) in China and present recommendations on ways to address these challenges in tobacco control in China. METHODS: We review the available literature on progress and explore the barriers and challenges that impede a speedier pace in the adoption of the effective tobacco control measures, and present recommendations based on in-depth knowledge of decision-making process on the implementation of FCTC in China. RESULTS: The pace of progress in China is too slow. China faces intractable political, structural, economic and social barriers in tobacco control, which make the whole-hearted implementation of FCTC measures a painstaking process. DISCUSSION: The authors recommend a comprehensive approach to speed up the implementation of tobacco control measures. This includes strong political leadership from the top, structural changes to the tobacco industry and government oversight of the tobacco industry, as well as advocacy and support for tobacco control from civil society at the grassroots level.

Distribution and characteristics of occupational injuries and diseases among farmers: a retrospective analysis of workers' compensation claims.

BACKGROUND: Research indicates occupational injuries and diseases are not evenly distributed among workers. We investigated the distribution and characteristics of compensated occupational injuries and diseases requiring medical care in the Finnish farming population. METHODS: The study population consisted of 93,564 Finnish farmers, spouses, and salaried family members who were covered by the mandatory workers' compensation insurance in 2002. This population had a total of 133,207 occupational injuries and 9,148 occupational diseases over a 26-year period (1982-2008). RESULTS: Clustering of claims was observed. Nearly half (47.1%) of the population had no compensated claims while 52.9% had at least one; 50.9% of farmers had one or more injuries and 8.1% had one or more diseases. Ten percent of the population had half of injury cases, and 3% of the population had half of occupational disease cases. Claims frequently involved work tasks related to animal husbandry and repair and maintenance of farm machinery. Injury and disease characteristics (work activity, cause, ICD-10 code) differed between individuals with high and low personal claim rate. Injuries and diseases of the musculoskeletal system had a tendency to reoccur among those with high claim rate. These outcomes were often related to strenuous working motions and postures in labor-intensive animal husbandry. CONCLUSIONS: Analyses of longitudinal insurance data contributes to better understanding of the long-term risk of occupational injury and disease among farmers. We suggest focusing on recurrent health outcomes and their causes among high risk populations could help design more effective interventions in agriculture and other industries.

Uso de agrotóxicos e impactos econômicos sobre a saúde / Pesticide use and economic impacts on health / Uso de agrotóxicos e impactos económicos en la salud

OBJETIVO: Estimar externalidades associadas às intoxicações agudas por agrotóxicos. MÉTODOS: Foram estimadas as probabilidades de intoxicação aguda segundo as características dos estabelecimentos rurais e de municípios no Paraná. Foram utilizadas informações sobre intoxicações agudas obtidas da Pesquisa de Previsão de Safras de 1998 a 1999. Os custos esperados com a intoxicação nessas propriedades foram calculados a partir da soma das despesas médicas-hospitalares e dos dias de convalescência necessários para restabelecer a saúde dos intoxicados. Foi construído um modelo multinível para análise. RESULTADOS: O custo associado à intoxicação aguda pode representar até US$ 149 milhões para o Paraná, i.e., para cada dólar gasto com a compra dos agrotóxicos no estado, cerca de US$ 1,28 poderiam ser gerados em custos externos com a intoxicação. Essa situação poderia ser revertida com a implementação de políticas públicas, como adoção de programa de incentivo à agricultura orgânica nos municípios, cujo custo social com a intoxicação aguda poderia ser reduzido em torno de US$ 25 milhões. CONCLUSÕES: A sociedade, em especial as populações mais atingidas pelos agrotóxicos, seriam beneficiadas se riscos de intoxicação aguda associados ao atual modelo de produção agrícola fossem reconhecidos e eliminados. É necessária a implementação de políticas públicas e ações integradas envolvendo os campos da economia, da saúde pública, da agronomia, do meio ambiente, da educação e da ciência e tecnologia, dentre outros.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the externalities associated with acute poisoning from pesticides. METHODS: The probabilities of acute poisoning were estimated according to characteristics of rural properties and cities in the state of Paraná, Southern Brazil. Information about acute poisoning obtained from the 1998-1999 Harvest Forecast Survey was used. The expected costs with poisoning in these properties were calculated from the sum of medical-hospital expenses and days spent on sick leaves, required for the recovery of intoxicated individuals. A multilevel model was constructed for the analysis. RESULTS: The costs associated with acute poisoning can total up to US$ 149 million for the state of Paraná, i.e. for each dollar spent to purchase pesticides in this state, approximately US$ 1.28 may be spent with the external costs of poisoning. This situation could be changed with the implementation of public policies, such as the adoption of an organic agriculture promotion program in the cities where the social cost with acute poisoning could be reduced by approximately US$ 25 million. CONCLUSIONS: Society, especially the populations mainly affected by pesticides, could be benefited by the identification and elimination of the risks of acute intoxication associated with the current model. It is necessary to implement public policies and integrated actions that involve the fields of economics, public health, agronomy, environmental issues, education, and science and technology, among others.

OBJETIVO: Estimar externalidades asociadas con las intoxicaciones agudas por pesticidas. MÉTODOS: Se estimaron las probabilidades de intoxicación aguda según las características de los establecimientos rurales y de municipios en Paraná, Sur de Brasil. Se utilizaron informaciones sobre intoxicaciones agudas obtenidas de la Investigación de Previsión de Cosechas de 1998 a 1999. Se calcularon los costos esperados con la intoxicación en tales propiedades a partir de la suma de los gastos médicos-hospitalarios y de los días de convalecencia necesarios para restablecer la salud de los intoxicados. Se construyó modelo multinivel para análisis. RESULTADOS: El costo asociado a la intoxicación aguda puede representar hasta US$ 149 millones en Paraná, es decir, para cada dólar gastado con la compra de los pesticidas en el estado, cerca de US$ 1,28 podrían ser generados en costos externos con la intoxicación. Esta situación podría ser revertida con la implementación de políticas públicas, como adopción de programa de incentivo a la agricultura orgánica en los municipios, donde el costo social con la intoxicación aguda podría ser reducido en torno de US$ 25 millones. CONCLUSIONES: La sociedad, en especial las poblaciones más afectadas por los pesticidas, serian beneficiadas en caso de reconocer y eliminar riesgos de intoxicación aguda asociados al presente modelo de producción agrícola. Es necesaria la implementación de políticas públicas y acciones integradas involucrando los campos de la economía, de la salud pública, de la agronomía, del medio ambiente, de la educación y de la ciencia y tecnología, entre otros.

Pesticide use and economic impacts on health.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the externalities associated with acute poisoning from pesticides. METHODS: The probabilities of acute poisoning were estimated according to characteristics of rural properties and cities in the state of Paraná, Southern Brazil. Information about acute poisoning obtained from the 1998-1999 Harvest Forecast Survey was used. The expected costs with poisoning in these properties were calculated from the sum of medical-hospital expenses and days spent on sick leaves, required for the recovery of intoxicated individuals. A multilevel model was constructed for the analysis. RESULTS: The costs associated with acute poisoning can total up to US$ 149 million for the state of Paraná, i.e. for each dollar spent to purchase pesticides in this state, approximately US$ 1.28 may be spent with the external costs of poisoning. This situation could be changed with the implementation of public policies, such as the adoption of an organic agriculture promotion program in the cities where the social cost with acute poisoning could be reduced by approximately US$ 25 million. CONCLUSIONS: Society, especially the populations mainly affected by pesticides, could be benefited by the identification and elimination of the risks of acute intoxication associated with the current model. It is necessary to implement public policies and integrated actions that involve the fields of economics, public health, agronomy, environmental issues, education, and science and technology, among others.

[The use of gloves as protector factor against scorpion stings during corn picking in the state of Guerrero, Mexico]. / El uso de guantes como factor protector contra picaduras de alacrán durante la pizca de maíz en el estado de Guerrero, México.

OBJECTIVE: Identify factors associated with scorpion stings among farm workers who pick corn in the Mexican state of Guerrero. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Cross-sectional survey in 14 randomly selected communities in the state of Guerrero.Simple frequencies were obtained and bivariate analysis was used to identify factors associated with scorpion stings while picking corn. Odds ratio was estimated to evaluate the magnitude of the effect. RESULTS: The incidence of scorpion stings was 15% (500/3 294) in 2003. Use of gloves was associated with a dramatic reduction in risk of scorpion stings to the hands (OR = 0.11; IC95% 0.06-0.18). Scorpion stings are a frequent occupational health issue for farm workers. If the results of this survey were reproduced in an unbiased trial, the implication would be that gloves could prevent 133 stings per 1,000 farm workers who currently do not use gloves. The cost of medical attention, transportation and time away from work due to a scorpion sting totaled 505.90 pesos (46 US dollars). CONCLUSIONS: The use of gloves by farmers who live in regions where scorpions are endemic should be promoted. The supply network for anti-scorpion serum should also be extended to all rural areas where very toxic species are predominant and farmers should be educated about the importance of seeking timely medical care at health clinics.

El uso de guantes como factor protector contra picaduras de alacrán durante la pizca de maíz en el estado de Guerrero, México / The use of gloves as protector factor against scorpion stings during corn picking in the state of Guerrero, Mexico

OBJETIVO: Identificar factores asociados a la picadura de alacrán durante la recolección de maíz, entre campesinos del estado de Guerrero. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Estudio transversal hecho en 2004, sobre picaduras de alacrán durante el ciclo agrícola 2003, con encuesta a hogares en 14 comunidades del estado de Guerrero, seleccionadas de forma aleatoria. Se obtuvieron frecuencias simples y análisis bivariado para identificar los factores asociados a la picadura de alacrán durante la pizca de maíz. Se estimó razón de momios para valorar la magnitud del efecto. RESULTADOS: La incidencia de picadura de alacrán fue de 15 por ciento (500/3 294) en 2003. El empleo de guantes se acompañó de menor riesgo de picaduras de alacrán en la mano (RM = 0.11; IC 95 por ciento 0.06-0.18). Usar sólo un guante podría evitar 133 picaduras por cada 1 000 campesinos que ahora no los utilizan. Los costos implicados por la picadura de alacrán sumaron 505.90 pesos (46 dólares estadounidenses). CONCLUSIONES: Es necesario promover el uso de guantes entre campesinos que viven en zonas con alta endemicidad de alacranes. Asimismo, extender la red de suministro de suero antialacrán a toda el área rural donde predominan especies muy tóxicas y orientar a los campesinos sobre la importancia de buscar atención oportuna en las unidades de salud.

OBJECTIVE: Identify factors associated with scorpion stings among farm workers who pick corn in the Mexican state of Guerrero. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Cross-sectional survey in 14 randomly selected communities in the state of Guerrero.Simple frequencies were obtained and bivariate analysis was used to identify factors associated with scorpion stings while picking corn. Odds ratio was estimated to evaluate the magnitude of the effect. RESULTS: The incidence of scorpion stings was 15 percent (500/3 294) in 2003. Use of gloves was associated with a dramatic reduction in risk of scorpion stings to the hands (OR = 0.11; IC95 percent 0.06-0.18). Scorpion stings are a frequent occupational health issue for farm workers. If the results of this survey were reproduced in an unbiased trial, the implication would be that gloves could prevent 133 stings per 1 000 farm workers who currently do not use gloves. The cost of medical attention, transportation and time away from work due to a scorpion sting totaled 505.90 pesos (46 US dollars). CONCLUSIONS: The use of gloves by farmers who live in regions where scorpions are endemic should be promoted. The supply network for anti-scorpion serum should also be extended to all rural areas where very toxic species are predominant and farmers should be educated about the importance of seeking timely medical care at health clinics.

Pesticides and farmer health in Nicaragua: a willingness-to-pay approach to evaluation.

A contingent valuation approach to assess the health effects of chemical pesticides among Nicaraguan vegetable farmers is presented. Farmers' valuation of health is measured as their willingness to pay (WTP) for low-toxicity pesticides. Results show that farmers are willing to spend an additional amount of about 28% of current pesticide expenditure for avoiding health risks. The validity of results is established in scope tests and with a two-step regression model. WTP depends on farmers' experience with poisoning, income variables, and current exposure to pesticides. The results can help in designing rural health policies and in the formulation of programmes aiming to reduce the negative effects of pesticides.

Poverty as a predisposing factor of illness tendencies in sugar cane workers.

This exploratory research based on the Social Ecological Theory aimed to study the health promotion of 39 people working in the harvest of the sugarcane in São Paulo, Brazil. The objectives were to identify the individual, social and environmental factors predisposing the workers to illnesses. The data were collected through direct observation of the labor activity and a questionnaire. The main individual determinant factors were physical effort and hectic work rhythm, and among the environmental factors, intense solar radiation, dust, soot and the presence of venomous animals were highlighted. The conditions of life and work reflect the poverty of these individuals and are the main social determinants of illness. The interaction of these factors can cause respiratory, cutaneous, musculoskeletal problems, occupational accidents. Thus, eradicating poverty and improving work conditions are fundamental for the health promotion of these workers.

Poverty as a predisposing factor of illness tendencies in sugar cane workers

This exploratory research based on the Social Ecological Theory aimed to study the health promotion of 39 people working in the harvest of the sugarcane in São Paulo, Brazil. The objectives were to identify the individual, social and environmental factors predisposing the workers to illnesses. The data were collected through direct observation of the labor activity and a questionnaire. The main individual determinant factors were physical effort and hectic work rhythm, and among the environmental factors, intense solar radiation, dust, soot and the presence of venomous animals were highlighted. The conditions of life and work reflect the poverty of these individuals and are the main social determinants of illness. The interaction of these factors can cause respiratory, cutaneous, musculoskeletal problems, occupational accidents. Thus, eradicating poverty and improving work conditions are fundamental for the health promotion of these workers.

Pesquisa exploratória, estruturada na Teoria Social Ecológica para o estudo da promoção da saúde de 39 trabalhadores, atuantes no corte da cana-de-açúcar de usina do interior do Estado de São Paulo-Brasil. Objetivou identificar fatores individuais, sociais e ambientais predisponentes ao adoecimento desses trabalhadores. Os dados foram coletados por meio de observação direta da atividade laboral e de questionário. Os principais determinantes individuais do adoecimento dos trabalhadores foram esforços físicos e acelerado ritmo de trabalho; entre os determinantes ambientais, destacaram-se calor intenso, poeira, fuligem e presença de animais peçonhentos; as condições de vida e trabalho refletem a pobreza desses indivíduos, principal determinante social do seu adoecimento. A interação desses fatores pode ocasionar o aparecimento de doenças respiratórias, cutâneas, osteomusculares e acidentes de trabalho. Assim, erradicar a pobreza e melhorar as condições de trabalho são fundamentais para a promoção da saúde desses trabalhadores.

Investigación exploratoria, estructurada en la Teoría Social Ecológica, para el estudio de la promoción de la salud en 39 trabajadores del corte de la caña de azúcar de una cultura del Estado de São Paulo-Brasil. El objetivo fue identificar los factores individuales, sociales y ambientales del adolecer de los trabajadores. La recolecta de datos fue realizada mediante observación directa de la actividad y del trabajo y un cuestionario. Los principales determinantes individuales del adolecer de los trabajadores fueron el ritmo físico acelerado y esfuerzo en el trabajo; entre determinantes del ambiente fue el calor intenso, la polvareda y la presencia de animales ponzoñosos; las condiciones de vida y de trabajo reflejan la pobreza de estos individuos, el principal determinativo del adolecer de los trabajadores. La interacción entre estos factores puede causar enfermedades respiratorias, cutáneas, osteomusculares y accidentes laborales. Así, suprimir la pobreza y mejorar las condiciones del trabajo son básicos para la promoción de la salud de estos trabajadores.

Injury and illness costs in the Certified Safe Farm study.

CONTEXT: The Certified Safe Farm (CSF) intervention program aims to reduce occupational injuries and illnesses, and promote wellness to reduce health care and related costs to farmers, insurers, and other stakeholders. PURPOSE: To evaluate the cost effectiveness of CSF. METHODS: Farms (316) located in a 9-county area of northwestern Iowa were recruited and randomized into intervention and control cohorts. Intervention farms received occupational health screenings, health and wellness screening, education, on-farm safety reviews, and performance incentives. For both cohorts, quarterly calls over 3 years were used to collect self-reported occupational injury and illness information, including costs to the farmers and their insurers. FINDINGS: Annual occupational injury and illness costs per farmer paid by insurers were 45% lower in the intervention cohort ($183) than in the control cohort ($332). Although out-of-pocket expenses were similar for both cohorts, combined costs of insurance and out-of-pocket expenses were 27% lower in the intervention cohort ($374/year per farmer) compared to the control cohort ($512/year per farmer). Within the cohort of intervention farmers, annual occupational injury and illness cost savings were directly associated with on-farm safety review scores. Reported health care costs were $237 per farmer in the safest farms (those farms scoring in the highest tertile) versus $485 per farmer in the least safe farms (lowest tertile). CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that farmers receiving the intervention had lower health care costs for occupational injuries and illnesses than control farmers. These cost savings more than cover the cost of providing CSF services (about $100 per farm per year).

Cost of compensated injuries and occupational diseases in agriculture in Finland.

Although agriculture is one of the most hazardous industries, the costs of agricultural injuries and illnesses are not well known. This study aimed to determine the cost burden from compensated injuries and occupational diseases in Finnish agriculture using workers compensation records. The incidence rates in 1996 were 7.4/100 for injuries and 0.61/100 for occupational diseases. Men had a higher risk of injury (RR = 1.89; 95% CI: 1.81-1.97), but a lower risk of an occupational disease (RR = 0.68; 95% CI: 0.60-0.78), compared to women. The total cost burden was 75 (Euros) per person in 1983, increasing to 215 in 1999. The total insurance cost in 1996 was 23.5 million consisting of medical care (16%), per diem (lost time compensation within one year from the incident) (37%), pension (lost time compensation after one year from the incident) (23%), survivors pension (3%), impairment allowance (7%), rehabilitation (6%), and other costs (9%). The total cost was 0.7% of the national gross farm income and 2.2% of the net farm income. The mean cost of 1996 cases was 1340 for injuries and 6636 for occupational diseases. Injuries represented 92% of the claims and 71% of the total costs. Occupational diseases represented 8% of the claims and 29% of the costs. Twenty percent of the most severe claims represented 79.5% of the total insurance costs. Injuries and occupational diseases result in significant costs in agriculture. Lost time was the largest cost item. Overall, injuries were more costly than occupational diseases. This study indicates that the 20%-80% rule applies to agricultural injury and illness costs, and from the cost standpoint, it is important to focus prevention efforts on the most severe incidents.

Hidden health costs of pesticide use in Zimbabwe's smallholder cotton growers.

Balancing the numerous benefits that may accrue from pesticide use on cotton, farmers face health hazards. Pesticide-induced acute symptoms significantly increased the cost-of-illness in a survey of 280 smallholder cotton growers in two districts of Zimbabwe. Cotton growers lost a mean of 180 Zimbabwe dollars in Sanyati and 316 Zimbabwe dollars per year in Chipinge on pesticide-related direct and indirect acute health effects. These values are equivalent to 45% and 83% of annual household pesticide expenditures in the two districts. The time spent recuperating from illnesses attributed to pesticides averaged 2 days in Sanyati and 4 days in Chipinge during the 1998/1999 growing season. These pesticide health cost estimates represent lower bounds only; they omit chronic pesticide health effects as well as suffering and other non-monetary costs. Acute pesticide symptoms were determined in large part by pesticide use practices, notably the lack of protective clothing. Yet many smallholder farmers misunderstood pesticide health hazards, and so did little to protect themselves. Despite the use of simple color codes, 22% of smallholder cotton growers in Sanyati and 58% in Chipinge did not know how the four colored triangles communicated increasing degrees of pesticide toxicity. Better farmer education in exposure averting strategies is needed. Likewise, fuller accounting for hidden health costs in future would allow farmers to make more informed decisions about agricultural pest management.