Assessment of a Single Quadrupole Mass Spectrometer Combined with an Atmospheric Solids Analysis Probe for the On-Site Identification of Amnesty Bin Drugs.

The surging number of people who abuse drugs has a great impact on healthcare and law enforcement systems. Amnesty bin drug analysis helps monitor the "street drug market" and tailor the harm reduction advice. Therefore, rapid and accurate drug analysis methods are crucial for on-site work. An analytical method for the rapid identification of five commonly detected drugs ((3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), cocaine, ketamine, 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine, and chloromethcathinone)) at various summer festivals in the U.K. was developed and validated employing a single quadrupole mass spectrometer combined with an atmospheric pressure solids analysis probe (ASAP-MS). The results were confirmed on a benchtop gas chromatography-mass spectrometry instrument and included all samples that challenged the conventional spectroscopic techniques routinely employed on-site. Although the selectivity/specificity step of the validation assessment of the MS system proved a challenge, it still produced 93% (N = 279) and 92.5% (N = 87) correct results when tested on- and off-site, respectively. A few "partly correct" results showed some discrepancies between the results, with the MS-only unit missing some low intensity active ingredients (N-ethylpentylone, MDMA) and cutting agents (caffeine, paracetamol, and benzocaine) or detecting some when not present. The incorrect results were mainly based on library coverage. The study proved that the ASAP-MS instrument can successfully complement the spectroscopic techniques used for qualitative drug analysis on- and off-site. Although the validation testing highlighted some areas for improvement concerning selectivity/specificity for structurally similar compounds, this method has the potential to be used in trend monitoring and harm reduction.

Real or fake? Sourcing and marketing of non-prescribed benzodiazepines amongst two samples of people who regularly use illicit drugs in Australia.

INTRODUCTION: There is concern around non-prescribed benzodiazepine use, particularly with increasing detections of counterfeit products containing high-risk novel compounds. The aims of this study were to investigate how and which non-prescribed benzodiazepines are being sourced; forms, appearance and packaging; and awareness of risks associated with non-prescribed benzodiazepines. METHODS: Data were collected from a sample of Australians who inject drugs or use ecstasy and/or other illicit stimulants on a monthly or more frequent basis, and who reported past 6-month use of non-prescribed benzodiazepines (n = 235 and n = 250, respectively). Data were collected on source, diversion from a known/trusted prescription, product name and aesthetic characteristics for the last non-prescribed benzodiazepine obtained. RESULTS: Amongst participants who injected drugs, 71% reported that their last non-prescribed benzodiazepines were diverted from a known/trusted prescription, compared to 59% of participants who used ecstasy/other stimulants. Sourcing via cryptomarkets was rare. Across both samples, the majority reported last obtaining substances sold/marketed as diazepam or alprazolam. Participants sourcing via non-diverted means were twice as likely to obtain alprazolam. Known sourcing of novel compounds was rare. Amongst participants who used ecstasy/other stimulants, 36% reported confidence in the content/dose of non-prescribed benzodiazepines even when the source is unknown. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Most participants obtained substances sold as classic/registered benzodiazepines, mostly via diverted prescriptions, with a substantial minority potentially unaware of counterfeits circulating. While diverted use undeniably presents risks, tightening of prescriptions in Australia could inadvertently lead to greater supply of novel benzodiazepines as seen internationally, reinforcing prioritisation of demand and harm reduction strategies.

Assessment of a portable quadrupole-based gas chromatography mass spectrometry for seized drug analysis.

The cutting agents, classified as diluents (pharmacologically inactive) or adulterants (pharmacologically active), are substances commonly used to cut drugs of abuse to increase profits. These substances are constantly changing over time, increasing the risks to the user's health caused by the compounds' potential individual toxicities as well as their drug-drug interactions. This work aimed to develop and validate a screening method using a portable quadrupole-based gas chromatography mass spectrometer (FLIR Griffin™ G510) to identify drugs of abuse and adulterants in seized material, and compare it with a well validated standard technology, gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The method was validated for the identification of alprazolam, amphetamine, aminopyrine, benzocaine, caffeine, cocaine, codeine, diltiazem, ephedrine, fentanyl, fenethylline, furanylfentanyl, heroin, hydroxyzine, levamisole, lidocaine, methamphetamine, morphine, noramidopyrine (a marker of metamizole), phencyclidine, phenacetin, procaine, strychnine and xylazine. The targeted substances were chosen based on current intelligence regarding prevalent adulterants observed in multiple jurisdictions. Interference, precision, robustness and carryover were evaluated. The method was successfully validated and proved to be suitable to detect and identify the 24 target compounds proposed. The reliability of the instrument for detecting the presence of targeted compounds was analyzed by using Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis. The portable quadrupole-based gas chromatography mass spectrometer was considered suitable for use in forensic analysis as a screening method.

Chemical profiling of the synthetic cannabinoid MDMB-CHMICA: Identification, assessment, and stability study of synthesis-related impurities in seized and synthesized samples.

In this work, the most discriminating synthesis-related impurities found in samples from seizures and controlled synthesis of the synthetic cannabinoid MDMB-CHMICA (methyl (S)-2-(1-(cyclohexylmethyl)-1H-indole-3-carboxamido)-3,3-dimethylbutanoate) were characterized. Based on 61 available powder samples of MDMB-CHMICA, 15 key-impurities were assessed, isolated in larger quantities via flash chromatography and structurally elucidated and characterized via high resolution mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Apart from verifying the relation of the impurities to the major component, the interpretation of their chemical structures with distinct structural elements provided first insights into the manufacturing process and the precursor compounds used. Following liquid chromatography mass spectrometry analysis of the 15 key-impurities, the 61 seized samples of MDMB-CHMICA were evaluated and classified via multivariate data analysis based on the corresponding relative peak areas. In a second part of this work, stability tests and multiple controlled syntheses of MDMB-CHMICA were carried out to better understand variations in impurity signatures and to assess the significance of variations in the impurity patterns of seized samples. The last coupling step of the amino acid with 1-(cyclohexylmethyl)-1H-indole-3-carboxylic acid was performed using the coupling agents oxalyl chloride, thionyl chloride, and HATU. Furthermore, the impact of reaction time and temperature on the impurity profile were investigated. Overall, eight new impurities were found in the controlled syntheses and two degradation products of MDMB-CHIMCA were found in the course of the stability tests. Replicates of a synthesis conducted on the same day showed similar impurity signatures; on different days they showed discriminable signatures. The use of different coupling reagents or conditions gave clearly distinguishable impurity signatures.

Two immunoassays for the detection of 2C-B and related hallucinogenic phenethylamines.

INTRODUCTION: The use of new psychoactive substances as drugs of abuse has dramatically increased over the last years. Hallucinogenic phenethylamines gained particular popularity as they have both stimulating and psychedelic effects. Although generally perceived as safe, these illicit drugs pose a serious health risk; they have been linked to cases of severe poisoning or even deaths. Therefore, simple, cost-effective and reliable methods are needed for rapid determination of abused hallucinogens. METHODS: For this purpose, two haptens derived from 2C-H were designed, synthesized and subsequently attached to a carrier protein. Polyclonal antibodies obtained from a rabbit immunized with one of the prepared immunogens were used for the development of two immunoassays. RESULTS: In this study, a lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) and an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the detection of 2C-B and related hallucinogenic phenethylamines in urine were developed. The presented LFIA is primarily suitable for on-site monitoring as it is simple and can provide a visual evidence of 2C-B presence within a few minutes. Its reasonable sensitivity (LODLFIA = 15 ±â€¯7 ng mL-1) allows detection of the drug presence in urine after acute exposure. For greater accuracy, highly sensitive ELISA (LODELISA = 6 ±â€¯3 pg mL-1) is proposed for toxicological quantitative analyses of positive samples captured by the LFIA. DISCUSSION: The comparison of the ELISA with the well-established UHPLC-MS-MS method shows excellent agreement of results, which confirms good potential of the ELISA to be used for routine analyses of 2C-B and related hallucinogenic phenethylamines of both main sub-families.

Analytical evidence to show letters impregnated with novel psychoactive substances are a means of getting drugs to inmates within the UK prison service.

Introduction Novel psychotropic substances also known as legal highs are a major concern in UK prisons, fuelling violence and putting a strain on resources for inmates requiring medical treatment for adverse effects. We provide a clinical toxicology service including routine screening for novel psychoactive substances. In 2015, we were approached by Her Majesty Prison Service search dog training team to advise on which novel psychoactive substances to target, and again in 2016 to further provide analytical support to test five letters which the dogs positively identified for novel psychotropic substances during routine searches of prison mail rooms. Here we provide the first analytical confirmation that letters sent to inmates are being used to smuggle novel psychotropic substances into UK prisons. Results Novel psychotropic substances were detected on all five letters and these included the stimulants ethylphenidate, methiopropamine and methoxiphenidaine, the sedative etizolam and the third generation synthetic cannabinoids 5F-AKB-48, AB-FUBINACA, MDMB-CHMICA. Other compounds detected include the class A drug cocaine, class B drug methylphenidate and the cutting agents lignocaine, benzocaine and procaine. Conclusion Novel psychotropic substances smuggled into UK prisons is a major safety and security concern. By analytically confirming letters sent to inmates do contain novel psychotropic substances, we have produced categorical evidence to support anecdotal suggestions that novel psychotropic substances are entering UK prisons in this manner.

Online test purchased new psychoactive substances in 5 different European countries: A snapshot study of chemical composition and price.

BACKGROUND: New psychoactive substances (NPS) are on offer worldwide online, in order to shed light on the purity and price of these substances in the European Union, a research collaboration was set up involving France, United Kingdom (UK), the Netherlands, Czech Republic and Poland. METHODS: Per country, around 10 different NPS were test purchased from different webshops. Then, chemical analysis of NPS was done with according reference standards to identify and quantify the contents. RESULTS: In contrast to what is generally advertised on the webshops (>99%), purity varied considerably per test purchased NPS. Several NPS were mislabelled, some containing chemical analogues (e.g. 25B/C-NBOMe instead of 25I-NBOMe, pentedrone instead of 3,4-DMMC). But in some cases NPS differed substantially from what was advertised (e.g. pentedrone instead of AMT or 3-FMC instead of 5-MeO-DALT). Per gram, purity-adjusted prices of cathinones differed substantially between three countries of test purchase, with Poland being the least expensive. Synthetic cannabinoids were relatively the most expensive in the Czech Republic and least expensive in the UK. CONCLUSION: The current findings provides a snapshot of the price and chemical contents of NPS products purchased by different countries and in different webshops. There is a potential danger of mislabelling of NPS. The great variety in price and purity of the delivered products might be the result of the market dynamics of supply and demand and the role of law enforcement in different European countries.

Purity, adulteration and price of drugs bought on-line versus off-line in the Netherlands.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: On-line drug markets flourish and consumers have high expectations of on-line quality and drug value. The aim of this study was to (i) describe on-line drug purchases and (ii) compare on-line with off-line purchased drugs regarding purity, adulteration and price. DESIGN: Comparison of laboratory analyses of 32 663 drug consumer samples (stimulants and hallucinogens) purchased between January 2013 and January 2016, 928 of which were bought on-line. SETTING: The Netherlands. MEASUREMENTS: Primary outcome measures were (i) the percentage of samples purchased on-line and (ii) the chemical purity of powders (or dosage per tablet); adulteration; and the price per gram, blotter or tablet of drugs bought on-line compared with drugs bought off-line. FINDINGS: The proportion of drug samples purchased on-line increased from 1.4% in 2013 to 4.1% in 2015. The frequency varied widely, from a maximum of 6% for controlled, traditional substances [ecstasy tablets, 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA) powder, amphetamine powder, cocaine powder, 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B) and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)] to more than a third for new psychoactive substances (NPS) [4-fluoroamphetamine (4-FA), 5/6-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (5/6-APB) and methoxetamine (MXE)]. There were no large differences in drug purity, yet small but statistically significant differences were found for 4-FA (on-line 59% versus off-line 52% purity for 4-FA on average, P = 0.001), MDMA powders (45 versus 61% purity for MDMA, P = 0.02), 2C-B tablets (21 versus 10 mg 2C-B/tablet dosage, P = 0.49) and ecstasy tablets (131 versus 121 mg MDMA/tablet dosage, P = 0.05). The proportion of adulterated samples purchased on-line and off-line did not differ, except for 4-FA powder, being less adulterated on-line (χ2  = 8.3; P < 0.02). Drug prices were mainly higher on-line, ranging for various drugs from 10 to 23% higher than that of drugs purchased off-line (six of 10 substances: P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Dutch drug users increasingly purchase drugs on-line: new psychoactive substances in particular. Purity and adulteration do not vary considerably between drugs purchased on-line and off-line for most substances, while on-line prices are mostly higher than off-line prices.

Assessment of the stability of mephedrone in ante-mortem and post-mortem blood specimens.

AIMS: The aim of this work is to test the stability of mephedrone added to whole blood collected from alive and dead mephedrone free-users and stored at three different temperatures (-20, +4 and +20°C) with and without preservatives up to 6 months, trying to establish the best storage condition in order to reduce possible analyte loss/degradation during the storage period. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Different sources of blood were obtained as follow: 10 samples of blood came from 10 alive mephedrone free-users (mean age 34±15.8 years old) (Group 1), whereas 10 post mortem blood samples were obtained from 10 cadavers, in which the post mortem interval was between 24 and 36h (Group 2). The cause of death in post mortem cases (mean age 45±14.2 years old) was not drug related. Pools of blood were spiked with mephedrone at the concentration of 1mg/L and 1mL aliquots were transferred in 2mL Eppendorf capped tubes with and without preservatives as follow: with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) 3%; with sodium fluoride/potassium oxalate (NaF/KOx) 1.67%/0.2%, respectively; without preservatives. All samples were stored at three different temperatures: -20°C, 4°C and 20°C and extracted and analyzed in duplicate by GC-MS according to a previously published method by Dickson et al., every other day during the first month and then weekly up to 6 months. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: our study allow us to affirm that -20°C is the best storage temperature for mephedrone stability in ante-mortem and post-mortem blood samples in comparison to the other two tested temperatures (+4 and +20°C), showing higher values in both groups in samples stored with and without preservatives (p<0.0001). The comparison of Group 1 (samples coming from alive subjects) and Group 2 (post-mortem samples) highlights a better stability of mephedrone in Group 1 (p<0.001) at all tested storage conditions. Finally, the analysis of blood specimens stored with and without preservatives in both groups suggests that specimens stored with NaF/KOx maintain mephedrone stability better than those stored with EDTA (p<0.001) and those stored without preservatives (p<0.0001), therefore, we strongly recommend in order to maintain the highest mephedrone stability in blood, to store specimens at -20°C adding NaF/KOx as preservative.

The impact of the prohibition of benzylpiperazine (BZP) "legal highs" on the availability, price and strength of BZP in New Zealand.

BACKGROUND: Legal highs containing benzylpiperazine (BZP) were widely sold in New Zealand until BZP was prohibited in 2008. We examined the impact the prohibition had on the availability and price of BZP over following years. METHODS: Two national population surveys of BZP use were conducted in 2006 and 2009. Four annual targeted surveys of frequent drug users (FDU) were conducted from 2007-2010. Availability and price measures were obtained. Inflation-adjusted real retail prices were calculated. Other drug markets were monitored as quasi-controls. RESULTS: The proportion of BZP users from the general population who considered the availability of BZP to be 'very easy' declined from 76% in 2006 to 21% in 2009. The proportion who thought BZP had become 'harder' to obtain increased from 5% in 2006 to 71% in 2009. The proportion who reported the price of BZP was 'higher' increased from 27% in 2006 to 51% in 2009. FDU who considered the availability of BZP to be 'very easy' declined from 98% in 2007 to 15% in 2008, and then increased to 42% by 2010. The real retail price of a BZP tablet increased from $9.86 in 2007 to $15.83 in 2010. The proportion who considered the price of BZP to be 'increasing' rose from 3% in 2007 to 47% in 2010. CONCLUSIONS: The availability of BZP declined immediately following its prohibition. Availability recovered in subsequent years, but not to the pre-prohibition legal level. The price of BZP increased slowly over a number of years following the prohibition.

Comprehensive analysis of "bath salts" purchased from California stores and the internet.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To analyze the contents of "bath salt" products purchased from California stores and the Internet qualitatively and quantitatively in a comprehensive manner. METHODS: A convenience sample of "bath salt" products were purchased in person by multiple authors at retail stores in six California cities and over the Internet (U.S. sites only), between August 11, 2011 and December 15, 2011. Liquid chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry was utilized to identify and quantify all substances in the purchased products. RESULTS: Thirty-five "bath salt" products were purchased and analyzed. Prices ranged from $9.95 to 49.99 (U.S. dollars). Most products had a warning against use. The majority (32/35, 91%) had one (n = 15) or multiple cathinones (n = 17) present. Fourteen different cathinones were identified, 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) being the most common. Multiple drugs found including cathinones (buphedrone, ethcathinone, ethylone, MDPBP, and PBP), other designer amines (ethylamphetamine, fluoramphetamine, and 5-IAI), and the antihistamine doxylamine had not been previously identified in U.S. "bath salt" products. Quantification revealed high stimulant content and in some cases dramatic differences in either total cathinone or synthetic stimulant content between products with the same declared weight and even between identically named and outwardly appearing products. CONCLUSION: Comprehensive analysis of "bath salts" purchased from California stores and the Internet revealed the products to consistently contain cathinones, alone, or in different combinations, sometimes in high quantity. Multiple cathinones and other drugs found had not been previously identified in U.S. "bath salt" products. High total stimulant content in some products and variable qualitative and quantitative composition amongst products were demonstrated.

Kronic hysteria: exploring the intersection between Australian synthetic cannabis legislation, the media, and drug-related harm.

BACKGROUND: Having first appeared in Europe, synthetic cannabis emerged as a drug of concern in Australia during 2011. Kronic is the most well-known brand of synthetic cannabis in Australia and received significant media attention. Policy responses were reactive and piecemeal between state and federal governments. In this paper we explore the relationship between media reports, policy responses, and drug-related harm. METHODS: Google search engine applications were used to produce time-trend graphs detailing the volume of media stories being published online about synthetic cannabis and Kronic, and also the amount of traffic searching for these terms. A discursive analysis was then conducted on those media reports that were identified by Google as 'key stories'. The timing of related media stories was also compared with self-reported awareness and month of first use, using previously unpublished data from a purposive sample of Australian synthetic cannabis users. RESULTS: Between April and June 2011, mentions of Kronic in the media increased. The number of media stories published online connected strongly with Google searches for the term Kronic. These stories were necessarily framed within dominant discourses that served to construct synthetic cannabis as pathogenic and created a 'moral panic'. Australian state and federal governments reacted to this moral panic by banning individual synthetic cannabinoid agonists. Manufacturers subsequently released new synthetic blends that they claimed contained new unscheduled chemicals. CONCLUSION: Policies implemented within in the context of 'moral panic', while well-intended, can result in increased awareness of the banned product and the use of new yet-to-be-scheduled drugs with unknown potential for harm. Consideration of regulatory models should be based on careful examination of the likely intended and unintended consequences. Such deliberation might be limited by the discursive landscape.

Analysis of synthetic cannabinoids in "spice-like" herbal highs: snapshot of the German market in summer 2011.

In this study, seven commercial "spice-like" products available on the German market were analyzed. They all contained significant amounts of synthetic cannabinoids and had distinctly different compositions of these adulterants. All synthetic cannabinoids were extracted and purified by different chromatographic techniques from the respective product. The structures of all compounds were elucidated by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and further characterized by mass spectrometry (MS) and ultraviolet and infrared spectroscopy to generate a full data set of each compound. Altogether, eight compounds were identified, and one deuterium-labeled cannabinoid was used as internal standard. Four products contained only one individual compound, while three products contained mixtures of two compounds. Among the eight isolated compounds, six were already known from recent publications (JWH-081, JWH-210, JWH-122, AM2201, RCS-4, and JWH-203), but the published data were not always complete. In addition, two unknown compounds (AM2201-pMe, RCS-4-(N-Me)) were isolated. Overall, compounds from three distinct classes of synthetic cannabinoids could be identified, characterized, and compared. The MS data of the different subclasses allowed the postulation of some general key fragmentations to distinguish between these subclasses. In addition, we established a general method using an isotopically labeled internal standard (JWH-018-D(3)) to quantify synthetic cannabinoids in herbal mixtures. The total content of the synthetic cannabinoids ranged from 77.5 to 202 mg/g, while individual compounds were detected from 19.3 to 202 mg/g in these products. The spectroscopic data for all compounds mentioned here were collected and added en bloc as Electronic supplementary material to this manuscript.

Synthetic cannabinoids as drugs of abuse.

In the last decade a number of products have appeared in various countries that contain synthetic cannabinoids. This article reviews the history of the sale of these drugs, and the evidence that they contain synthetic cannabinoids. The biochemistry of the synthetic cannabinoids identified thus far is discussed, including a discussion of chemical structures and biochemical targets. The cannabinoid receptor targets for these drugs are discussed, as well as other possible targets such as serotonin receptors. Evidence for the abuse potential of these drugs is reviewed. The toxicity of synthetic cannabinoids and cannabinoid products is reviewed and compared to that of the phytocannabinoid Δ9- tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). As cannabinoids are a structurally diverse class of drugs, it is concluded that synthetic cannabinoids should be classified by biological activity rather than by structure, and that if this isn't done, novel synthetic cannabinoids will continue to emerge that fall outside of current regulatory classification models.

Drugs, the Internet and change.

This article investigates the symbiotic relationship between drugs and the Internet, focusing (though not exclusively) on psychedelics. Programming on psychedelics in Silicon Valley from the 1960s to date is detailed, as are the twinned conceptualizations of drugs as a technology and technology as a drug. The correlation between drugs, the Internet, and consumerism is explored: the Internet is a medium through which "white," "grey" and "black" drug markets flourish. Thus, this article details the burgeoning online trades in pharmaceuticals, recreational, and "life-style" drugs that turn the Internet into a veritable candy store. Drug forums transmogrify into street corners, threatening the continued existence of the current system of global prohibition. However, it is arguably the use of the Web as an information source that may offer the greatest challenge to the incumbent paradigm, with experiential discourses offering alternatives to the hegemonic narrative, as the relationships between drugs, those who sell drugs and drug takers are reconfigured online.

The impact of changes in UK classification of the synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists in 'Spice'.

BACKGROUND: Spice is the iconic brand name of a smokeable herbal mixture containing synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists. It has been available on the Internet/in head shops in Europe since at least 2006. The synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist constituents of Spice were classified in the UK as Class B agents in December 2009. This study assessed the impact of this legislation on the synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists present in Spice products and whether new synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists outside of the legislation are now available. METHODS: Spice products were bought, prior to and after the change in the UK legislation, from a range of Internet legal high websites selling to UK consumers. Products were analysed using liquid chromatography high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (LCMSMS). Identification of the synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist(s) detected was made by comparison to existing databases or by 'in silico' methods. RESULTS: Sixteen products were purchased prior to the UK control of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists; all contained at least one synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist. 20 products were purchased after the UK control; no active compounds were detected in 3 (15%). The remaining 17 (85%) all contained at least one classified synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist. Additionally, 2 synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists not covered under current UK generic legislation (AM-694 and the 'novel Belarus compound') were detected. CONCLUSION: Despite the UK 'Spice' classification, classified synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists continue to be supplied over the Internet to UK users. Furthermore, new synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists not covered by the legislation are appearing. Consideration needs to be given to reviewing the UK legislation so that suppliers cannot circumvent it by supplying legal alternatives to the classified synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists.

Heroin in brown, black and white: structural factors and medical consequences in the US heroin market.

BACKGROUND: Heroin coming into the United States historically comes from three widely dispersed geographical regions: Southwest Asia, Southeast Asia and Mexico. A fourth source of US-bound heroin, from Colombia, originated in the early 1990s. The fact that the four heroin sources produce differing morphologies and qualities of heroin has not been critically examined. In addition, it is not well established how the contemporary competing dynamics of interdiction, or restriction of heroin flows across international boundaries, and neoliberal, e.g., global expansion of free trade, policies are affecting heroin markets. This paper will highlight changes in the US heroin market, including source trends, the political economy of the now dominant source and the resultant effects on the heroin risk environment by US region. METHODS: Using a structural and historical framework this paper examines two decades of secondary data sources, including government and drug control agency documents, on heroin flows together with published work on the political and economic dynamics in Latin America. RESULTS: Co-occurring neoliberal economic reforms may have contributed to paradoxical effects of US/Colombian interdiction efforts. Since entering the US market, heroin from Colombia has been distributed at a much higher quality and lower retail price. An increasingly exclusive market has developed with Mexican and Colombian heroin gaining market share and displacing Asian heroin. These trends have had dramatic effects on the risk environment for heroin consumers. An intriguing factor is that different global sources of heroin produce substantially different products. Plausible associations exist between heroin source/form and drug use behaviours and harms. For example, cold water-soluble powdered heroin (sources: Asia, Colombia) may be associated with higher HIV prevalence in the US, while low-solubility "black tar" heroin (BTH; source: Mexico) is historically used in areas with reduced HIV prevalence. BTH is associated with soft tissue infections caused by Clostridium bacteria. CONCLUSION: Source and type of heroin are structural factors in the risk environment of heroin users: source dictates distribution and type predicts practice. How specific types of heroin are used and with what risk is therefore distributed geographically. Continued flux in the heroin market and its effects on the risk environment for drug users deserves further attention.

Diazatetraester 1H-pyrazole crowns as fluorescent chemosensors for AMPH, METH, MDMA (ecstasy), and dopamine.

The synthesis and steady-state fluorescence studies on the interaction with AMPH, METH, MDMA, and DA of two diazatetraester pyrazole crowns containing appended N-(9H-fluoren-9-yl) and N-(naphth-2-ylmethyl) functions, in a water/ethanol 70:30 mixture at physiological pH, are described.