Assessment Practices in K-12 Physical Education in the United States: A Scoping Review of Research, 2000-2020.

Appropriate assessment practices are recognized as a critical part of the learning process and represent a key component of quality physical education. Recent shifts in school reform efforts toward more accountability in the United States and an emerging emphasis on student-centered approaches challenge historical approaches to assessment. Purpose: Therefore, the purpose of this review was to (a) identify research conducted on physical education teachers' assessment practices during the years 2000-2020, (b) determine the impact of assessment practices on student outcomes, and (c) describe research that explores factors associated with the SHAPE America guidelines for appropriate assessment practices. Method: The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-Sc) Checklist guided this review. All related empirical, peer-reviewed, English-language studies conducted in U.S. schools and published since January 1, 2000 qualified for inclusion. Results: A total of 17 articles met the inclusion criteria for this review. Most used non-experimental methods and were conducted in the secondary (grades 6-12) physical education context. Limited studies examined the relationship between assessment practices and learning outcomes. Recommendations for future research are provided based on the results. Conclusions: A diverse body of studies provides valuable, yet limited evidence related to teacher assessment practices. Systematic research is needed to better understand the impact of teacher assessment practices on student outcomes and to build a stronger foundation for evidence-based recommendations for practice.

Physical Education Policies in US Schools: Differences by School Characteristics.

BACKGROUND: We assessed the extent to which schools in the United States implement physical education policies identified in SHAPE America's Essential Components of Physical Education document and how implementation of these policies varies by school characteristics. METHODS: School policy data were collected as part of the 2014 School Health Policies and Practices Study via computer-assisted personal interviews in a nationally representative sample of K-12 schools and were linked to extant data on school characteristics. Bivariate analyses and Poisson regression model were used to examine how physical education policies differed by school characteristics. RESULTS: Five physical education policies varied by region and 3 varied by school level. Requiring certified, licensed, or endorsed physical education teachers varied by all school characteristics except school level and percentage of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch. The average number of physical education policies implemented by schools was 3.0. The number of policies varied by metropolitan status and school level. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest many schools are only implementing a few of the physical education policies that can strengthen their physical education programs. These findings can be used to target professional development and technical assistance for physical education practitioners on policy and implementation.

State Physical Education Policy Changes From 2001 to 2016.

BACKGROUND: State policies influence the quantity and quality of educational programs delivered in schools. This study examined state physical education policy changes from 2001 to 2016 by analyzing data reported in The Shape of the Nation Report. METHODS: Policies related to state mandates for physical education, time/credit requirements, assessment and fitness testing requirements, adoption of state standards, and allowance of substitutions were analyzed over 5 editions of the report using repeated measures statistics. RESULTS: A majority of state physical education-related policies have not changed over the past 15 years despite calls by numerous public health agencies for enhanced physical education in schools. There was, however, a significant increase in the number of states adopting teaching standards and requiring assessment and fitness testing in physical education, mirroring a broader shift in education toward standards, assessment, and accountability. CONCLUSIONS: Despite improved rigor in physical education through the adoption of standards and assessment practices, physical education continues to be marginalized in schools by a lack of curricular time and inappropriate substitution policies. Stronger policies are needed for physical education to have a substantial impact on school health.

Access to credentialed elementary physical education teachers in California and students' cardiorespiratory fitness.

Physical education (PE) can improve student health. Schools with credentialed PE teachers receive more PE. However, many schools have reduced PE funding, resulting in fewer teachers and potentially poorer student health. We examined if PE teachers are equally available across school districts, and if availability is associated with higher student cardiorespiratory fitness. We contacted California districts educating students in grades K-6 (n = 894) to determine the number of credentialed elementary PE teachers per district in 2016-17. Public datasets provided demographics and student fitness. Generalized linear models examined associations between district-level demographic characteristics and PE teacher-to-student ratio. Linear regression assessed the relationship between PE teacher-to-student ratio and student fitness. Seventy-five percent of districts (n = 669) responded. On average, there were 0.6 PE teachers for every 500 students, including the half (51%) of districts without elementary PE teachers. Each additional100 students of all racial/ethnic backgrounds in the district was associated with a 0.1% (95% CI -0.2%, -0.1%) decrease in the ratio. Each 10% increase in African American and Latino students was associated with 29% (95% CI -47%, -5%) and 18% (95% CI -31%, -3%) decreases in the ratio, respectively. Each additional PE teacher per 500 students was associated with a 3% increase in aerobically fit students (95% CI 1%, 4%). Elementary PE teachers are lacking in California, particularly in districts with a high proportion of African American and Latino students, which may be contributing to health disparities. Creative action to fund PE should be explored to ensure all students benefit from quality PE.

Results from the Medical School Physical Activity Report Card (MSPARC) for a Thai Medical School: a mixed methods study.

BACKGROUND: Data systems for surveillance and monitoring are essential to develop understanding of the levels of physical activity (PA) occurring at the population levels. To comprehensively understand PA in medical schools, a suitable surveillance tool might be useful to present and monitor key PA-related metrics. This study investigated PA-related metrics in a Thai medical school and summarised the findings using a newly developed tool-the Medical School Physical Activity Report Card (MSPARC). METHODS: A mixed methods study was carried out at three campuses of a medical school in Southern Thailand. Data analysis included descriptive statistics and qualitative reviews. All 285 medical students from a medical school were the target population. The prevalence of PA (≥ 150 min/week of moderate- to vigorous-intensity PA) and sedentary behaviours (SB) (≥ 8 h/day of sedentary time) among medical students were analysed using data from a self-administered questionnaire. Usage patterns, quality, and accessibility of walkable neighbourhoods; bicycle facilities; and recreational areas were assessed. PA promotion programmes, education, and investment related to PA promotion were reviewed from the school documents. RESULTS: Of 279 participants, 138 (49.5%) met PA recommendation, but 71.7% met criteria for SB. Male students were more active (61.8 vs. 42.4%) and less sedentary (65.7 vs. 75.1%) than female students. Bicycle facilities were rated as having the lowest quality and accessibility among PA-related facilities. Most PA promotion programmes were sports clubs and sport competitions. A total of 25 h of PA education was taught throughout the entire curriculum, which provided minimal PA counselling training. The school invested 2136.14 Baht/student/year (US $64.34) in PA promotion, or 2.4% of the annual tuition. The MSPARC presented the summary of the findings by using simple symbols, infographics, and short texts. CONCLUSIONS: To increase PA and decrease SB among medical students, there is a need to improve the quality and accessibility of the built environment as well as the natural environment, so as to establish health promoting policies. PA counselling training is required to develop the medical students' essential skills and awareness for future practices. Monitoring and subsequent surveillance of PA in medical school are needed.

Hygienic assessment of different forms of physical education lessons organization in primary school.

OBJECTIVE: Introduction: Different forms of physical education lessons organization, including swimming classes were introduced in education process without studying of its healthsaving effectiveness. The aim of this study was hygienic assessment of different forms of physical education lessons organization in primary school. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Materials and methods: Cross-sectional study was conducted in two schools with different organization of physical education lessons. The experimental group (E) consisted of 408 children of 1­4 year of study (210 girls and 198 boys) who were engaged in swimming in the school basin during one of the lessons of physical education. Control group (C) consisted of 279 primary school children (210 girls and 156 boys) from a neighboring educational institution where all physical education lessons were organized in the gym. The integral estimation of physical education classes was performed. Action timing with pulse measurement during gym and swimming lessons was held. Target heart rate level was calculated using Carvonen formula. Heart rate variability parameters were measured using diagnostic complex FAZAGRAF® . RESULTS: Results: A low level of physical load in E and C groups causes functional tension of cardio-vascular system. Pulse restitution and distribution on the types of vegetative regulation indicates that children attended one swimming lesson per week recovered better after physical load comparing to the C group. CONCLUSION: Conclusions: Primary schoolchildren have low physical endurance. Attending one swimming lesson per week contributes to better recovery after physical load and improves vegetative regulation.

Barriers and Enablers to the Implementation of School Wellness Policies: An Economic Perspective.

BACKGROUND: Local wellness policies (LWPs) are mandated among school systems to enhance nutrition/physical activity opportunities in schools. Prior research notes disparities in LWP implementation. This study uses mixed methods to examine barriers/enablers to LWP implementation, comparing responses by student body income. METHOD: Schools ( n = 744, 24 systems) completed an LWP implementation barriers/enablers survey. Semistructured interviews ( n = 20 random subsample) described barriers/enablers. Responses were compared by majority of lower (≥50% free/reduced-price meals; lower income [LI]) versus higher income (HI) student body. RESULTS: In surveys, LI and HI schools identified common barriers (parents/families, federal/state regulations, students, time, funding) and enablers (school system, teachers, food service, physical education curriculum/resources, and staff). Interviews further elucidated how staffing and funding served as enablers for all schools, and provide context for how and why barriers differed by income: time, food service (HI schools), and parents/families (LI schools). CONCLUSIONS: Findings support commonalities in barriers and enablers among all schools, suggesting that regardless of economic context, schools would benefit from additional supports, such as physical education and nutrition education resources integrated into existing curricula, additional funding, and personnel time dedicated to wellness programming. LI schools may benefit from additional funding to support parent and community involvement.

Development of a physical activity monitoring tool for Thai medical schools: a protocol for a mixed methods study.

INTRODUCTION: Physical activity (PA) is important in promoting health, as well as in the treatment and prevention of diseases. However, insufficient PA is still a global health problem and it is also a problem in medical schools. PA training in medical curricula is still sparse or non-existent. There is a need for a comprehensive understanding of the extent of PA in medical schools through several indicators, including people, places and policies. This study includes a survey of the PA prevalence in a medical school and development of a tool, the Medical School Physical Activity Report Card (MSPARC), which will contain concise and understandable infographics and information for exploring, monitoring and reporting information relating to PA prevalence. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: This mixed methods study will run from January to September 2017. We will involve the School of Medicine, Walailak University, Thailand, and its medical students (n=285). Data collection will consist of both primary and secondary data, divided into four parts: general information, people, places and policies. We will investigate the PA metrics about (1) people: the prevalence of PA and sedentary behaviours; (2) place: the quality and accessibility of walkable neighbourhoods, bicycle facilities and recreational areas; and (3) policy: PA promotion programmes for medical students, education metrics and investments related to PA. The MSPARC will be developed using simple symbols, infographics and short texts to evaluate the PA metrics of the medical school. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: This study has been approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of Walailak University (protocol number: WUEC-16-005-01). Findings will be published in peer-reviewed journals and presented at national or international conferences. The MSPARC and full report will be disseminated to relevant stakeholders, policymakers, staff and clients.

An RCT to Facilitate Implementation of School Practices Known to Increase Physical Activity.

INTRODUCTION: Although comprehensive school-based physical activity interventions are efficacious when tested under research conditions, they often require adaptation in order for implementation at scale. This paper reports the effectiveness of an adapted efficacious school-based intervention in improving children's moderate to vigorous physical activity. The impact of strategies to support program implementation was also assessed. DESIGN: A cluster RCT of low socioeconomic elementary schools in New South Wales, Australia. SETTING/PARTICIPANTS: Consenting schools were randomized (25 intervention, 21 control) using a computerized random number function. Follow-up measures were taken at 6 months post-randomization (May-August 2015) by blinded research assistants. The multicomponent school-based intervention, based on an efficacious school-based physical activity program (Supporting Children's Outcomes using Rewards, Exercise and Skills), consisted of four physical activity strategies and seven implementation support strategies. The intervention was adapted for scalability and delivery by a local health service over 6 months. The primary outcome was accelerometer assessed, student mean daily minutes spent in moderate to vigorous physical activity. Physical education lesson quality and other school physical activity practices were also assessed. RESULTS: Participants (n=1,139, 49% male) were third- through sixth-grade students at follow-up (May-August 2015). Valid wear time and analysis of data were provided for 989 (86%) participants (571 intervention, 568 control). At 6-month follow-up, there were no significant effects in overall daily minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity between groups (1.96 minutes, 95% CI= -3.49, 7.41, p=0.48). However, adjusted difference in mean minutes of overall vigorous physical activity (2.19, 95% CI=0.06, 4.32, p=0.04); mean minutes of school day moderate to vigorous physical activity (2.90, 95% CI=0.06, 5.85, p=0.05); and mean minutes of school day vigorous physical activity (1.81, 95% CI=0.78, 2.83, p≤0.01) were significantly different in favor of the intervention group. Physical education lesson quality and school physical activity practices were significantly different favoring the intervention group (analyzed October 2015-January 2016). CONCLUSIONS: The modified intervention was not effective in increasing children's overall daily minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity, when adapted for implementation at scale. However, the intervention did improve daily minutes of vigorous physical activity and school day moderate to vigorous physical activity, lesson quality, and school physical activity practices. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry: ACTRN12615000437561.

Associations between demographic characteristics and physical activity practices in Nevada schools.

Schools are important settings for not only providing and promoting children's physical activity (PA) but also for reducing PA disparities. We investigated associations between school-level demographic characteristics (racial/ethnic and socioeconomic composition, urban-rural status, and student-to-teacher ratio) and 16 PA-promoting practices in 347 Nevada public elementary, middle, and high schools in 2014. We found that low-cost and easy-to-implement practices are most prevalent. There is relative demographic equity in ten of 16 PA practices and significant differences in six PA practices in Nevada schools. Schools with comparatively larger percentages of Black students are the most disadvantaged, as they have the fewest PA-supportive practices in place. Higher percent black was associated with lower odds of providing classroom activity breaks (AOR=0.632, 95% CI=0.453-0.881) and bike racks (AOR=0.60, 95% CI=0.362-0.996), greater odds of withholding recess/PE for disciplinary reasons (AOR=1.377, 95% CI=1.006-1.885), and lower odds of having recess supervisors who are trained to promote PA (AOR=0.583, 95% CI=0.374-0.909). Schools with greater percentages of Hispanic students have lower odds of providing before-school PA programs (AOR=0.867, 95% CI=0.761-0.987), whereas schools with greater percentages of low-SES students have greater odds of providing after-school PA programs (AOR=1.135, 95% CI=1.016-1.268). Higher student-to-teacher ratio was also associated with greater odds of providing after-school PA programs (AOR=1.135, 95% CI=1.016-1.268). Urban-rural status was unrelated to all PA practices.

Implementing Policies to Enhance Physical Education and Physical Activity in Schools.

The purpose of this commentary is to provide an overview of national physical activity recommendations and policies (e.g., from the Institute of Medicine, National Physical Activity Plan, and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) and to discuss how these important initiatives can be implemented in local schools. Successful policies are illustrated. Specific strategies and ideas are shared regarding how physical educators can assert themselves and impart their knowledge in an effort to build support for policy implementations that enhance the delivery of physical education and physical activity in their schools and communities.

Supervising athletic trainers' perceptions of professional socialization of graduate assistant athletic trainers in the collegiate setting.

CONTEXT: Many newly credentialed athletic trainers gain initial employment as graduate assistants (GAs) in the collegiate setting, yet their socialization into their role is unknown. Exploring the socialization process of GAs in the collegiate setting could provide insight into how that process occurs. OBJECTIVE: To explore the professional socialization of GAs in the collegiate setting to determine how GAs are socialized and developed as athletic trainers. DESIGN: Qualitative study. SETTING: Individual phone interviews. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Athletic trainers (N = 21) who had supervised GAs in the collegiate setting for a minimum of 8 years (16 men [76%], 5 women [24%]; years of supervision experience = 14.6 ± 6.6). DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Data were collected via phone interviews, which were recorded and transcribed verbatim. Data were analyzed by a 4-person consensus team with a consensual qualitative-research design. The team independently coded the data and compared ideas until a consensus was reached, and a codebook was created. Trustworthiness was established through member checks and multianalyst triangulation. RESULTS: Four themes emerged: (1) role orientation, (2) professional development and support, (3) role expectations, and (4) success. Role orientation occurred both formally (eg, review of policies and procedures) and informally (eg, immediate role immersion). Professional development and support consisted of the supervisor mentoring and intervening when appropriate. Role expectations included decision-making ability, independent practice, and professionalism; however, supervisors often expected GAs to function as experienced, full-time staff. Success of the GAs depended on their adaptability and on the proper selection of GAs by supervisors. CONCLUSIONS: Supervisors socialize GAs into the collegiate setting by providing orientation, professional development, mentoring, and intervention when necessary. Supervisors are encouraged to use these socialization tactics to enhance the professional development of GAs in the collegiate setting.

School reform: the role of physical education policy in physical activity of elementary school children in Alabama's Black Belt Region.

PURPOSE: To investigate the implementation of state- and school-mandated physical education (PE) and physical activity policies on students' school-day physical activity behaviors. DESIGN: Observational, cross-sectional study. SETTING: Five elementary schools in rural Alabama. SUBJECTS: Six hundred and eighty-three school-age children. MEASURES: School-day physical activity behaviors were assessed with pedometer step count, the System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT), and the System for Observing Play and Leisure Activity in Youth (SOPLAY). ANALYSIS: Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) were used to describe the current health and in-school physical activity behaviors of students. RESULTS: Students accumulated a daily average of 4079.57 (± 1678.1) and 3473.44 (± 1073.37) steps for boys and girls, respectively, throughout the school day. SOFIT findings indicate that students spent an average of 23.80 ± 5.33 min/d in PE and that 14.33 ± 6.10 min/d were spent in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This equates to 59.38% of PE time spent in MVPA. SOPLAY findings showed that recess and before/after school activity was not provided. CONCLUSIONS: It appears that schools were in compliance with the state-mandated PE policies on paper but not in actuality. Students did not attend PE for 30 min/d. The implementation of PE as the sole physical activity opportunity provides inadequate amounts of physical activity during the school day.

[OPTIMIZATION THE LEVEL OF INTENSIVELY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION FOR PUPILS OF THE SPECIAL MEDICAL CONTINGENT].

This article describes an original technique, designed tooptimize the level of intensity of physical activity used in the course of routine physical edication in classes for pupils of the specialized medical groups. The basis of this technique is the principles evaluate the response of students of special medical group to progressively increasing exercise test with which sets the optimal level of activity for each of the students with the features of the state of his health. The practical application of this method allows you to install exactly the level of exercise used in the course of the lessons of physical education in special medical groups, which improves the health of students with variations in health status, and does not increase the likelihood of any complications of their diseases.

Evaluating the Wellness School Assessment Tool for use in public health practice to improve school nutrition and physical education policies in New York.

BACKGROUND: Addressing the limitations of existing Local Wellness Policies (LWPs) and promoting their implementation remain priorities for health and education agencies. One gap has been the absence of a standard assessment to support LWP revision. During planning for an initiative to improve school nutrition and physical education policy, the Wellness School Assessment Tool (WellSAT) was evaluated. METHODS: Five public health practitioners used WellSAT to assess 50 LWPs. A randomized, counterbalanced design ensured each LWP was coded twice by separate raters. Models evaluated the extent to which WellSAT ratings reflected differences in the LWPs and order, familiarity and rater effects. During field testing, 18 public health practitioners used WellSAT as part of a statewide public health initiative. RESULTS: In pilot testing the majority of the variability in WellSAT scores (median = 88%; range = 76% to 100%) was attributable to differences between policies. Correlations between independent raters' strength and comprehensiveness scores were strong, r = .88 and r = .77, respectively. During field testing, WellSAT was well accepted by public health practitioners and members of the school community. CONCLUSIONS: WellSAT represents a reliable and feasible tool for health and education agencies to use in improving LWPs and aligning them with recognized standards.

Are physical education policies working? A snapshot from San Francisco, 2011.

INTRODUCTION: School physical education (PE) has been identified as a critical public health tool to increase physical activity among youths. We sought to objectively assess compliance with PE quantity mandates and quality recommendations in a large urban California school district. METHODS: We collected PE schedules and systematically observed PE lessons (n=154) in 20 elementary, 4 middle, and 4 high schools from February through May 2011. RESULTS: On the basis of schools' master schedules, 83% of elementary schools met the California state mandate of 100 PE minutes per week. Teachers' actual schedules indicated that 20% of schools met the mandate, and observation showed that only 5% were in compliance. All middle and high schools met the mandated 200 minutes per week. On average, classes at all school levels met the recommended 50% of PE lesson time in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. No teacher- or school-level factors significantly predicted PE quantity, but credentialed elementary PE teachers spent more time building students' motor skills. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that current national estimates of PE, which are based on schools' self-report, overestimate the amount of PE provided in elementary schools. Although more than half of PE class time was spent in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, total physical activity in elementary schools from PE is minimal and may do little to contribute to students' overall health.

Stages of change model for participation in physical activity during pregnancy.

BACKGROUND: The transtheoretical model (TTM) has been successful in promoting health behavioral change in the general population. However, there is a scant knowledge about physical activity in relation to the TTM during pregnancy. Hence, the aims of the present study were (1) to assess readiness to become or stay physically active according to the TTM and (2) to compare background and health variables across the TTM. METHODS: Healthy pregnant women (n = 467) were allocated to the study from Oslo University Hospital, Norway. The participants filled in a validated self-administered questionnaire, physical activity pregnancy questionnaire (PAPQ) in gestation, weeks 32-36. The questionnaire contained 53 questions with one particular question addressing the TTM and the five stages: (1) precontemplation stage, (2) contemplation stage, (3) preparation stage, (4) action stage, and (5) maintenance stage. RESULTS: More than half of the participants (53%) were involved in regular exercise (stages 4-5); however, only six specified that they had recently started an exercise program (stage 4). About 33% reported engaging in some physical activity, but not regularly (stage 3). The results showed that receiving advice from health professionals to exercise during pregnancy increased the likeliness of being in stages 4-5, while higher age, multiparity, pregravid overweight, unhealthy eating habits, pelvic girdle pain, and urinary incontinence were more prevalent with low readiness to change exercise habits (stages 1-3). CONCLUSION: According to the TTM, more than half of the participants reported to be physically active. Moreover, most of the participants classified as inactive showed a high motivational readiness or intention to increase their physical activity level. Hence, pregnancy may be a window of opportunity for the establishment of long-term physical activity habits.