Material Flow Analysis and Occupational Exposure Assessment in Additive Manufacturing End-of-Life Material Management.

Additive manufacturing (AM) offers a variety of material manufacturing techniques for a wide range of applications across many industries. Most efforts at process optimization and exposure assessment for AM are centered around the manufacturing process. However, identifying the material allocation and potentially harmful exposures in end-of-life (EoL) management is equally crucial to mitigating environmental releases and occupational health impacts within the AM supply chain. This research tracks the allocation and potential releases of AM EoL materials within the US through a material flow analysis. Of the generated AM EoL materials, 58% are incinerated, 33% are landfilled, and 9% are recycled by weight. The generated data set was then used to examine the theoretical occupational hazards during AM EoL material management practices through generic exposure scenario assessment, highlighting the importance of ventilation and personal protective equipment at all stages of AM material management. This research identifies pollution sources, offering policymakers and stakeholders insights to shape pollution prevention and worker safety strategies within the US AM EoL management pathways.

Evaluation of biological markers for the risk assessment of carbon black in epidemiological studies.

Background/objectives: Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) have been suggested as being capable of promoting inflammation, a key component in the pathways associated with carcinogenesis, cardiovascular disease, and other conditions. As a result, the risk assessment of biological markers as early-stage indicators has the potential to improve translation from experimental toxicologic findings to identifying evidence in human studies. The study aims to review the possible early biological changes in workers exposed to carbon black (CB), followed by an evidentiary quality evaluation to determine the predictive value of the biological markers. Methods: We conducted a literature search to identify epidemiological studies that assessed biological markers that were involved in the inflammatory process at early stages among workers with exposure to CB. We reviewed the studies with specific reference to the study design, statistical analyses, findings, and limitations. Results: We identified five Chinese studies that investigated the potential impact of exposure to CB on inflammatory markers, bronchial wall thickening, genomic instability, and lung function impairment in CB production workers. Of the five Chinese studies, four were cross-sectional; another study reported results at two-time points over six years of follow-up. The authors of all five studies concluded positive relationships between exposure and the inflammatory cytokine profiles. The weak to very weak correlations between biomarkers and early-stage endpoints were reported. Conclusion: Most inflammatory markers failed to satisfy the proposed evidentiary quality criteria. The significance of the results of the reviewed studies is limited by the cross-sectional study design, inconsistency in results, uncertain clinical relevance, and high occupational exposures. Based on this review, the risk assessment relying on inflammatory markers does not seem appropriate at this time. Nevertheless, the novel research warrants further exploration in assessing exposure to ENMs and corresponding potential health risks in occupational settings.

Health risk assessment of occupational exposure to heavy metals among green space workers in Iran.

Exposure to heavy metals can result in various adverse health effects. Tehran is rated as one of the world's most polluted cities. Green space workers are continuously exposed to such pollutants in this city. Thus, this study aimed to estimate the health risks caused by exposure to heavy metals among green space workers. Eighty-eight workers and office personnel in two regions with different air quality levels were chosen for sampling. Air samples were collected using the NIOSH-7300 method and analyzed using an Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) instrument. The hazard quotient (HQ) and the lifetime cancer risk (LTCR) were calculated to assess carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk levels. The results revealed that the rank order of heavy metals was determined as Zn, Pb, Mn, Ni, Co, and Cd. Workers were subjected to higher concentrations of Ni, Pb, Zn, and Co than office personnel. Furthermore, the Cd, Co, and Zn exposure levels stood significantly higher in region 6 than in region 14. Non-carcinogenic risk levels for all participants fell within the acceptable range. Moreover, no employee had a carcinogenic risk level within the acceptable range when exposed to Cd. Also, 2.3% of individuals demonstrated Ni's acceptable carcinogenic risk level. Owing unacceptable risk levels, proper interventions are required to minimize occupational exposure to heavy metals. These interventions include optimizing shift schedules, using personal protective equipment, and conducting regular health assessments.

Assessment of genotoxicity biomarkers in gasoline station attendants due to occupational exposure.

Gasoline station attendants are exposed to numerous chemicals that might have genotoxic and carcinogenic potential, such as benzene in fuel vapor and particulate matter and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in vehicle exhaust emission. According to IARC, benzene and diesel particulates are Group 1 human carcinogens, and gasoline has been classified as Group 2A "possibly carcinogenic to humans." At gas stations, self-service is not implemented in Turkey; fuel-filling service is provided entirely by employees, and therefore they are exposed to those chemicals in the workplace during all working hours. Genetic monitoring of workers with occupational exposure to possible genotoxic agents allows early detection of cancer. We aimed to investigate the genotoxic damage due to exposures in gasoline station attendants in Turkey. Genotoxicity was evaluated by the Comet, chromosomal aberration, and cytokinesis-block micronucleus assays in peripheral blood lymphocytes. Gasoline station attendants (n = 53) had higher tail length, tail intensity, and tail moment values than controls (n = 61). In gasoline station attendants (n = 46), the frequencies of chromatid gaps, chromosome gaps, and total aberrations were higher compared with controls (n = 59). Increased frequencies of micronuclei and nucleoplasmic bridges were determined in gasoline station attendants (n = 47) compared with controls (n = 40). Factors such as age, duration of working, and smoking did not have any significant impact on genotoxic endpoints. Only exposure increased genotoxic damage in gasoline station attendants independently from demographic and clinical characteristics. Occupational exposure-related genotoxicity risk may increase in gasoline station attendants who are chronically exposed to gasoline and various chemicals in vehicle exhaust emissions.

[Diffuse interstitial lung disease of possible occupational origin treated at the Navarra Health Service. Navarra, Spain, 2017-2022]. / Enfermedad pulmonar intersticial difusa de posible origen laboral atendida en el Servicio Navarro de Salud. Navarra, España, 2017-2022.

INTRODUCTION: Diffuse interstitial lung disease (ILD) describes a broad group of pulmonary inflammatory and fibrosis disorders. Asbestosis and silicosis are the main causes linked to occupational exposure. The aim of this study was to estimate the proportion of cases with possible occupational origin and describe their exposure, clinical, and occupational status. METHOD: We conducted a retrospective longitudinal study of ILD cases between 2017 - 2022 at the University Hospital of Navarra was conducted. Information was supplemented with interviews of cases with possible occupational origin. The occupational proportion was calculated, labor and clinical characteristics analyzed, by statistical comparison of percentages and means. RESULTS: Out of 1067 ILD cases, 56 had a possible occupational origin 5,2% (95% CI 3,9-6,6%). 36 (64,3%) corresponded to asbestosis, 15 (26,8%) to silicosis, and 5 (8,9%) to unspecified pneumoconiosis. The most frequent activities in silicosis were "stone cutting-carving" and in asbestosis "manufacture of iron products". The average age of asbestosis cases was higher than that of silicosis cases (78,2 vs. 67,3 years), as well as their clinical manifestation. Five cases (8,9%) had been recognized as occupational diseases. CONCLUSIONS: The implementation of a computer tool in medical records has made it possible to estimate the magnitude and assess the evolution of occupational ILD treated in the Public Health Service. Economic activities reflect the economic risk structure of the region. However, there is a lack of recognition of these diseases as occupational illnesses and they represent a preventable burden of respiratory disease.

Introducción: La enfermedad pulmonar intersticial difusa (EPID) describe un amplio grupo de trastornos con inflamación y fibrosis pulmonar. La asbestosis y la silicosis son las principales causas por exposición laboral. El objetivo de este trabajo fue estimar la proporción de casos de posible origen laboral y describir la exposición, situación clínica y laboral.  Método: Estudio longitudinal retrospectivo de los casos de EPID, en el período 2017-2022 en el Hospital Universitario de Navarra. Se completó la información con entrevista a los casos de posible origen laboral.  Resultados: De un total de 1067 casos de EPID, 56 tuvieron un posible origen laboral, 5,2% (3,9-6,6 IC 95%) 36 (64,3%) correspondieron a asbestosis, 15 (26,8%) a silicosis y 5 (8,9%) a neumoconiosis no especificada. Las actividades más frecuentes en silicosis fueron "corte-tallado de piedra" y para asbestosis "fabricación productos hierro". La media de edad de los casos de asbestosis fue superior a los de silicosis (78,2 vs. 67,3 años), así como su afectación clínica. Cinco casos (8,9%) habían sido reconocidos como enfermedad profesional  Conclusiones: La implementación de una herramienta informática en historia clínica ha hecho posible estimar la magnitud y valorar la evolución de las EPID laborales atendidas en el servicio nacional de salud. Las actividades económicas reflejan la estructura económica de riesgo de la región. Sin embargo, existe una falta de su reconocimiento como enfermedad profesional y suponen una carga de enfermedad respiratoria evitable.

Heat-related fatalities in North Carolina 1999-2017.

OBJECTIVES: Research shows the highest rates of occupational heat-related fatalities among farm laborers and among Black and Hispanic workers in North Carolina (NC). The Hispanic population and workforce in NC have grown substantially in the past 20 years. We describe the epidemiology of heat-related fatal injuries in the general population and among workers in NC. METHODS: We reviewed North Carolina death records and records of the North Carolina Office of the Chief Medical Examiner to identify heat-related deaths (primary International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision diagnosis code: X30 or T67.0-T67.9) that occurred between January 1, 1999, and December 31, 2017. Decedent age, sex, race, and ethnicity were extracted from both the death certificate and the medical examiner's report as well as determinations of whether the death occurred at work. RESULTS: In NC between 1999 and 2017, there were 225 deaths from heat-related injuries, and 25 occurred at work. The rates of occupational heat-related deaths were highest among males, workers of Hispanic ethnicity, workers of Black, multiple, or unknown race, and in workers aged 55-64. The highest rate of occupational heat-related deaths occurred in the agricultural industry. CONCLUSIONS: Since the last report (2001), the number of heat-related fatalities has increased, but fewer were identified as workplace fatalities. Rates of occupational heat-related deaths are highest among Hispanic workers. NC residents identifying as Black are disproportionately burdened by heat-related fatalities in general, with a wider apparent disparity in occupational deaths.

[Application and comparison of three occupational health risk assessment methods in an automobile manufacturing industry].

Objective: Three occupational health risk assessment methods were used to assess the occupational health risk of noise exposed posts in an automobile manufacturing enterprise. According to the results, the selection of risk assessment methods and risk management of such occupational noise enterprises were provided. Methods: Form April to November 2021, The occupational health field survey was carried out in an automobile manufacturing industry in Tianjin. The occupational health MES risk assessment method, occupational health risk index risk assessment method and Australian occupational hazard risk assessment method were used to evaluate the occupational health risk of noise-exposed posts in this enterprise, and the evaluation results of different methods were analyzed and compared. Results: The average value of L(Aeq, 8 h) in the four workshops of automobile manufacturing industry was 82.95 dB (A) , and the noise detection exceeding rate was 22.41% (26/116) . The LAeq, 8h and exceeding rate noise of welding workshop were higher than those of other workshops (χ(2)=23.56, 32.94, P<0.01) . The three occupational health risk assessment methods have the same risk assessment results for the four major workshops. The assembly and painting workshops are level 4 risk (possible risk) , and the stamping and welding workshops are level 3 risk (significant risk) . Conclusion: Occupational noise has certain potential hazards to workers in automobile manufacturing enterprises. Therefore, in the future work, corresponding organizational management measures should be taken to improve the working environment and reduce the actual exposure level of workers in order to protect the health of occupational workers.

Potential risk assessment: a model for quality evaluation in fluoroscopy-guided interventional procedures.

This study presented a model applied for potential risk assessment in an interventional radiology setting. The model of potential risk assessment (MARP) consisted of the creation of a scale of indicators ranging from 0 to 5. The radiation levels were categorized according to gender, kind of procedure, value of kerma air product (Pka), and accumulated radiation dose (mGy). The MARP model was applied in 121 institutions over 8 y. A total of 201 656 patient radiation doses (Dose-area product and accumulated kerma) data were launched into the system over time, with an average of 22 406 doses per year. In the context of the workers (cardiologists, radiographers, and nurses) monitored during the MARP application, 8007 cases (with an average of 890 per year) of occupational radiation doses were recorded. This study showed a strategy for quality evaluation in fluoroscopy using a model with a compulsory information system for monitoring safety.

Public health assessment of Kenyan ASGM communities using multi-element biomonitoring, dietary and environmental evaluation.

The Kakamega gold belt's natural geological enrichment and artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) have resulted in food and environmental pollution, human exposure, and subsequent risks to health. This study aimed to characterise exposure pathways and risks among ASGM communities. Human hair, nails, urine, water, and staple food crops were collected and analysed from 144 ASGM miners and 25 people from the ASGM associated communities. Exposure to PHEs was predominantly via drinking water from mine shafts, springs and shallow-wells (for As>Pb>Cr>Al), with up to 366 µg L-1 arsenic measured in shaft waters consumed by miners. Additional exposure was via consumption of locally grown crops (for As>Ni>Pb>Cr>Cd>Hg>Al) besides inhalation of Hg vapour and dust, and direct dermal contact with Hg. Urinary elemental concentrations for both ASGM workers and wider ASGM communities were in nearly all cases above bioequivalents and reference upper thresholds for As, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb and Sb, with median concentrations of 12.3, 0.4, 1.6, 5.1, 0.7 and 0.15 µg L-1, respectively. Urinary As concentrations showed a strong positive correlation (0.958) with As in drinking water. This study highlighted the importance of a multidisciplinary approach in integrating environmental, dietary, and public health investigations to better characterise the hazards and risks associated with ASGM and better understand the trade-offs associated with ASGM activities relating to public health and environmental sustainability. Further research is crucial, and study results have been shared with Public Health and Environmental authorities to inform mitigation efforts.

A no-fault risk compensation approach for radiation risks incurred in space travel.

In this paper we recommend an appropriate compensation approach should be established for fatality and disabilities that may occur due to space radiation exposures of government or industry workers. A brief review of compensation approaches for nuclear energy and nuclear weapons development workers in the United States and other countries is described. We then summarize issues in the application of probability of causation calculation and provide examples of probability of causation (PC) calculations for missions to the International Space Station and Earth's moon or for Mars exploration. The main focus of this paper follows with a recommendation of a no-fault approach to compensation with the creation of appropriate insurance policies funded by employers to cover all disabilities or fatality, without requiring proof of causation or restriction to conditions that imply causation. Importantly we propose that the compensation described should be managed by recourse to private insurers.

Establishment of a headspace-thermal desorption and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method (HS-TD-GC-MS) for simultaneous detection of 51 volatile organic compounds in human urine: Application in occupational exposure assessment.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are a group of ubiquitous environment pollutants especially released into the workplace. Assessment of VOCs exposure in occupational populations is therefore a crucial issue for occupational health. However, simultaneous biomonitoring of a variety of VOCs is less studied. In this study, a simple and sensitive method was developed for the simultaneous determination of 51 prototype VOCs in urine by headspace-thermal desorption coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-TD-GC-MS). The urinary sample was pretreated with only adding 0.50 g of sodium chloride to 2 mL of urine and 51 VOCs should be determined with limits of detection (LODs) between 13.6 ng/L and 24.5 ng/L. The method linearity ranged from 0.005 to 10 µg/L with correlation coefficients (r) of 0.991 to 0.999. The precision for intraday and inter-day, measured by the variation coefficient (CV) at three levels of concentration, was below 15 %, except for 4-isopropyl toluene, dichloromethane, and trichloromethane at low concentration. For medium and high levels, recoveries of all target VOCs were within the standard range, but 1,1-dichloropropene and styrene, which were slightly under 80 % at low levels. In addition, the proposed method has been used to determine urine samples collected in three times (before, during and after working) from 152 workers at four different factories. 41 types of prototype VOCs were detected in workers urine. Significant differences (Kruskal-Wallis chi-squared = 117.18, df = 1, P < 0.05) in the concentration levels of VOCs between the exposed and unexposed groups were observed, but not between the three sampling times (Kruskal-Wallis chi-squared = 3.39, df = 2, P = 0.183). The present study provides an alternative method for biomonitoring and assessing mixed exposures to VOCs in occupational populations.

Socio-demographic, agricultural, and personal protective factors in relation to health literacy among farmers from all regions of Thailand.

Introduction: Farmers are vulnerable to adverse health effects from pesticide exposure due to their health literacy (HL). Therefore, this study aims to investigate HL among farmers in four main regions of Thailand, investigating socio-demographics, agricultural, and personal protective factors to their HL. Methods: This cross-sectional design study was conducted on 4,035 farmers from January to July 2023. The European Health Literacy Survey Questionnaire-47 items were used to measure HL. Results: Thai farmers had a mean HL score of 34.7 ± 8.7, and the farmers in the North region of Thailand had the highest frequency of limited HL (75.8%). Socio-demographic factors that were associated with HL included gender, region of living, marital status, education level, co-morbidity, and number of family members. Agricultural factors associated with HL included planting status, working hours on farm, spraying pesticides, harvesting crops, pesticide use of >1 type, access information from government officers, access information from posters/brochures, information from online multimedia, and access information from neighbors. Personal protective factors that were associated with HL included wearing a hat, goggles, a rubber apron, and a long-sleeved shirt. Discussion: Our study recommends that strategies and interventions to enhance the HL of farmers should be focused on the target populations, which include men, widows, or divorced, those with low levels of education, those who have co-morbidities, and those who applied pesticides of more than 1 type and improper personal protective equipment (PPE) use. The primary emphasis needs to be on the North region of Thailand, making that the target area to improve health equity in Thailand. These efforts would enhance the HL of farmers and sustainably improve pesticide safety behavior. Additionally, there is an urgent need for supportive measures aimed at altering on-farm practices and promoting education on alternative pest management strategies, particularly non-chemical crop protection, to ensure sustainable agriculture.

Exposure Assessment and Monitoring of Antiblastic Drugs Preparation in Health Care Settings: A Systematic Review.

Several antiblastic drugs (ADs) are classified as carcinogenic, mutagenic, and/or toxic for reproduction. Despite established guidelines and safe handling technologies, ADs contamination of the work environments could occur in healthcare settings, leading to potential exposure of healthcare staff. This systematic review aims to investigate the main techniques and practices for assessing ADs occupational exposure in healthcare settings. The reviewed studies unveil that workplace contamination by ADs appears to be a still-topical problem in healthcare settings. These issues are linked to difficulties in guaranteeing: (i) the adherence to standardized protocols when dealing with ADs, (ii) the effective use of personal protective equipment by operators involved in the administration or management of ADs, (iii) a comprehensive training of the healthcare personnel, and (iv) a thorough health surveillance of exposed workers. A "multi-parametric" approach emerges as a desirable strategy for exposure assessment. In parallel, exposure assessment should coincide with the introduction of novel technologies aimed at minimizing exposure (i.e., risk management). Assessment must consider various departments and health operators susceptible to ADs contamination, with a focus extended beyond worst-case scenarios, also considering activities like surface cleaning and logistical tasks related to ADs management. A comprehensive approach in ADs risk assessment enables the evaluation of distinct substance behaviors and subsequent exposure routes, affording a more holistic understanding of potential risks.

Assessment of emissions and potential occupational exposure to carbon monoxide during biowaste composting.

To date, only a few studies focused on the carbon monoxide (CO) production during waste composting; all targeted on CO inside piles. Here, the CO net emissions from compost piles and the assessment of worker's occupational risk of exposure to CO at large-scale composting plants are shown for the first time. CO net emissions were measured at two plants processing green waste, sewage sludge, or undersize fraction of municipal solid waste. Effects of the location of piles (hermetised hall vs. open yard) and turning (before vs. after) were studied. Higher CO net emission rates were observed from piles located in a closed hall. The average CO flux before turning was 23.25 and 0.60 mg‧m-2‧h-1 for hermetised and open piles, respectively, while after- 69.38 and 5.11 mg‧m-2‧h-1. The maximum CO net emissions occurred after the compost was turned (1.7x to 13.7x higher than before turning). The top sections of hermetised piles had greater CO emissions compared to sides. Additionally, 5% of measurement points of hermetised piles switched to 'CO sinks'. The 1-h concentration in hermetised composting hall can reach max. ~50 mg CO∙m-3 before turning, and >115 mg CO∙m-3 after, exceeding the WHO thresholds for a 1-h and 15-min exposures, respectively.

Optimization of benzene exposure risk assessment: An integrated approach utilizing internal and external concentrations with a focus on biomarkers S-PMA & t, t-MA.

In the majority of occupational settings within China, the concentrations of benzene are observed to fall markedly below the demarcated detection thresholds. Employing traditional risk assessment models, the presence of exceptionally low airborne benzene exposure concentrations may infuse heightened degrees of uncertainty. Consequently, the necessity arises to investigate risk assessment methodologies more apt for the prevalent exposure environment among employees. In the present study, a pharmacokinetic model premised on urinary benzene metabolites (S-PMA and t, t-MA) was employed to ascertain a more precise daily airborne benzene exposure concentration per individual. This value was integrated into the linear multistage model as the 'internal exposure concentration'. In conjunction with the U.S National Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) inhalation risk assessment model predicated on the external exposure concentration, the Singapore Ministry of Manpower's (MOM) model, and the linear multistage (LMS) model, the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects of benzene were evaluated for 1781 benzene-exposed employees across 76 enterprises in Jiangsu Province. Findings suggest that in the linear multilevel model assessment, the cancer risk levels based on t, t-MA and S-PMA were higher in the printing and recording media reproduction industry, automobile manufacturing industry, general equipment manufacturing industry and the furniture manufacturing industry (median 2.842 × 10-4, 2.819 × 10-4, 2.809 × 10-4, and 2.678 × 10-4), which align more consistently with the actual benzene exposure circumstances of each industry's study participants, with overall risk levels calculated by the linear multistage model exceeding those of the EPA inhalation risk assessment model and the MOM model. This implies that the linear multistage model of internal exposure, based on the reciprocal of benzene biomarkers S-PMA and t, t-MA for airborne benzene exposure, presents enhanced sensitivity and suitability for the current occupational health risk assessment of workers. Without doubt, biomarker-based benzene exposure risk assessment emerges as the optimal choice.

Evaluation of the risk of occupational exposure to antineoplastic drugs in healthcare sector: part II - the application of the FMECA method to compare manual vs automated preparation.

Healthcare workers handling antineoplastic drugs (ADs) in preparation units run the risk of occupational exposure to contaminated surfaces and associated mutagenic, teratogenic, and oncogenic effects of those drugs. To minimise this risk, automated compounding systems, mainly robots, have been replacing manual preparation of intravenous drugs for the last 20 years now, and their number is on the rise. To evaluate contamination risk and the quality of the working environment for healthcare workers preparing ADs, we applied the Failure Mode Effects and Criticality Analysis (FMECA) method to compare the acceptable risk level (ARL), based on the risk priority number (RPN) calculated from five identified failure modes, with the measured risk level (MRL). The model has shown higher risk of exposure with powdered ADs and containers not protected by external plastic shrink film, but we found no clear difference in contamination risk between manual and automated preparation. This approach could be useful to assess and prevent the risk of occupational exposure for healthcare workers coming from residual cytotoxic contamination both for current handling procedures and the newly designed ones. At the same time, contamination monitoring data can be used to keep track of the quality of working conditions by comparing the observed risk profiles with the proposed ARL. Our study has shown that automated preparation may have an upper hand in terms of safety but still leaves room for improvement, at least in our four hospitals.

Global, regional, and national burden of non-communicable diseases attributable to occupational asbestos exposure 1990-2019 and prediction to 2035: worsening or improving?

Understanding the burden associated with occupational asbestos exposure on a global and regional scale is necessary to implement coordinated prevention and control strategies. By the GBD Study 2019, we conducted a comprehensive assessment of the non-communicable diseases burden attributable to occupational asbestos exposure. In 2019, 239,330 deaths and 4,189,000 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) worldwide due to occupational asbestos exposure occurred. 1990-2019, deaths and DALYs attributed to occupational asbestos exposure increased by 65.65% and 43.66%, respectively. Age-standardized mortality rate (ASMR) and age-standardized DALYs rate (ASDR) decreased, with the most rapid declines in high Socio-Demographic Index (SDI) regions, with average annual percent change (AAPC) of - 1.05(95%CI: -1.2, -0.89) and -1.53(95%CI: -1.71, -1.36), respectively. Lung cancer, mesothelioma and ovarian cancer were the top three contributors to the increase in deaths and DALYs, accounting for more than 96%. AAPCs of ASMR and ASDR were positively associated with SDI. Global deaths from occupational asbestos exposure were predicted to increase and ASMR to decrease by 2035, mostly in males. Due consideration should be given to the susceptibility of the elderly, the lag of asbestos onset, and the regional differences, and constantly improve the prevention and control measures of occupational asbestos exposure and related diseases.

[Risk assessment and toxicity effects of materials used during additive manufacturing with FDM technology]. / Ocena zagrozen i dzialanie toksyczne materialów stosowanych podczas drukowania przestrzennego w technologii FDM.

This paper discusses the potential of additive printing, the risks it poses to users' health (including 3D printer operators) and the effects of chemical substances released during the printing based on the available in vitro and in vivo studies. It was shown that substances emitted during printing with the commonly used acrylonitrile butadiene styrene filament in additive manufacturing might have carcinogenic, hepatotoxic and teratogenic effects, as well as toxic effect on the respiratory system. The latest research on the mechanism of formation of particles and volatile organic compounds during 3D printing, the parameters affecting their potential emission, and trends in reducing these hazards are indicated. The need for the design of more environmentally friendly and less emissive printing materials, as well as strategies for prevention and individual and collective protection measures are emphasized. Users of 3D printers should be familiar with all possible aspects of the threats associated with the printing process. Insufficient data on direct exposure to chemicals and particles released during the use of filaments makes it difficult to build awareness of safe working practices. Of particular concern is the health impact of emitted chemicals and particles from thermally treated materials in one of the most popular technologies for 3D printing, i.e., fused deposition modelling. Exposure of the users to, e.g., plasticizers added to filaments occurs through a variety of routes, by absorption through the skin, by inhalation or ingestion. Available epidemiological data, as well as current experimental works, indicate that such exposure is a high risk of cardiovascular diseases, atherosclerosis in adults, and cardiac problems and metabolic disorders in children. This review, by identifying potential risk factors, may contribute to reducing the health loss of printer users and improving working conditions and safety, especially in enterprises where additive manufacturing technology is used. Med Pr Work Health Saf. 2024;75(2):159-171.

Assessment of PAH exposure and health risks among South Korean firefighters based on urinary PAH metabolites.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) comprise a group of compounds resulting from the incomplete combustion of organic matter. Firefighters engaged in fire suppression are highly exposed to PAHs. This study centered on evaluating the exposure levels and health risks of PAHs in South Korean firefighters involved in firefighting activities. The concentrations of 10 PAH metabolites in the urine of firefighters were measured immediately after, and two weeks post their engagement in extinguishing a large tire factory fire. The levels of OH-PAHs in urine samples immediately after fire suppression were elevated by a factor of 1.01-1.84 compared to urine samples from non-exposed period. The median concentration of total PAH metabolites (OH-PAHs) was higher in urine samples immediately after fire suppression (5910 ng/g creatinine) than in urine samples from non-exposed periods (5020 ng/g creatinine). However, the ∑OH-PAH levels in firefighters' urine were related to personal habits such as smoking. The concentrations of all individual OH-PAHs in the urine samples of nonsmokers exhibited a substantial increase, ranging from 1.37 to 2.3 times, clearly demonstrating that firefighting activities were a substantial source of PAH exposure. The calculated values associated with the health risks stemming from exposure to PAHs, including carcinogenic risk, total estimated daily intake (TEDI), and hazard quotients/index (HQs/HI), all fell within acceptable limits, indicating negligible risk. However, the HQ/HI values and TEDI for individual and total PAH exposures, except those for naphthalene, were 1.36-2.00 times higher in firefighters' samples taken after firefighting operations compared to those during regular duty. This underscores the need for more comprehensive investigations to comprehend the singular impact of firefighting activities due to the diverse sources of PAH emissions in the environment.