Insights from modelling sixteen years of climatic and fumonisin patterns in maize in South Africa.

Mycotoxin contamination of agricultural commodities is a global public health problem that has remained elusive to various mitigation approaches, particularly in developing countries. Climate change and its impact exacerbates South Africa's vulnerability to mycotoxin contamination, and significantly threatens its's food systems, public health, and agro-economic development. Herein we analyse sixteen years (2005/2006-2020/2021) of annual national meteorological data on South Africa which reveals both systematic and erratic variability in critical climatic factors known to influence mycotoxin contamination in crops. Within the same study period, data on fumonisin (FB) monitoring show clear climate-dependent trends. The strongest positive warming trend is observed between 2018/2019 and 2019/2020 (0.51 °C/year), and a strong positive correlation is likewise established between FB contamination and temperature (r ranging from 0.6 to 0.9). Four machine learning models, viz support vector machines, eXtreme gradient boosting, random forest, and orthogonal partial least squares, are generalized on the historical data with suitable performance (RMSE as low as 0.00). All the adopted models are able to predict future FB contamination patterns with reasonable precision (R2 ranging from 0.34 to 1.00). The most important model feature for predicting average FB contamination (YA) is the historical pattern of average FB contamination in maize within the region (ΣFBs_avg). The two most significant features in modelling maximum FB contamination (YM) are minimum temperature from the CMIP6 data (Pro_tempMIN) and observed precipitation from the CRU data (O_prep). Our study provides strong evidence of the impact of climate change on FB in South Africa and reiterates the significance of machine learning modelling in predicting mycotoxin contamination in light of changing climatic conditions, which could facilitate early warnings and the adoption of relevant mitigation measures that could help in mycotoxin risk management and control.

Financial losses due to fumonisin contamination in the Texas High Plains maize.

Fumonisins are one of the main problems affecting maize production in the Texas High Plains (THP), where its agroclimatic conditions make it a perennial hotspot for mycotoxin contamination. In 2017, a fumonisin outbreak in the THP maize motivated stakeholders' request to repeal a subsection of the Texas Administrative Code, §61.61(a)(7) (Fumonisin Rule), and its related Texas Feed Industry Memorandum (Memo 5-20), which previously permitted the blending of maize containing high fumonisin levels with maize containing ≥ 5 mg/kg under state authority, and pivot to FDA fumonisin guidance. Shortly after, the USDA Risk Management Agency (RMA's) reintroduced Discount Factors (DFs) in annual Special Provisions (SP) that outline price reductions related to fumonisin contamination in maize. In this research, we estimate the potential economic burden posed by these changes through a two-part approach. In part one, we construct a decision model that explores the final disposition of fumonisin-contaminated maize based on blending permissions, fumonisin levels, and crop insurance status. In part two, we estimate the economic impact by inserting output values of the decision model into financial equations that consider testing costs, transportation fees, and discounts from crop insurance and grain elevators when applicable. Our economic analysis projects that the financial losses during a THP crop year with high fumonisin levels could range from $15.1 to $135.5 million without the option to blend under conditions of the revised RMA discount schedule. Findings further highlight crop insurance as the most promising risk management strategy for farmers in areas susceptible to fumonisin contamination.

Assessment of dietary exposure and levels of mycotoxins in sorghum from Niger State of Nigeria.

This study reports levels of mycotoxins in sorghum from Niger State, Nigeria, and provides a comprehensive assessment of their potential health risks by combining mycotoxin levels and dietary exposure assessment. A total of 240 samples of red and white sorghum were collected from both stores and markets across four microclimatic zones. Fungal species were identified using a dilution plate method. Aflatoxins (AFs), deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, and ochratoxin (OTA) were quantified using HPLC, whereas cyclopiazonic acid, fumonisins (FUMs) and zearalenone were quantified using ELISA. A. flavus and A. fumigatus were dominant fungal species followed by F. verticilloides, A. oryzae and P. verrucosum. Aflatoxins (mean: 29.97 µg/kg) were detected in all samples, whereas OTA (mean: 37.5 µg/kg) and FUMs (mean: 3269.8 µg/kg) were detected in 72% and 50% of the samples, respectively. Mycotoxins frequently co-occurred in binary mixtures of AFs + OTA and AFs + FUMs. Dietary exposure estimates were highest for FUMs at 230% of TDI and margin of exposures (MOEs) for both AFs and OTA (<10,000) indicating a potential risk associated with combined exposure to AFs and OTA. The Risk of hepatocellular carcinoma cases (HCC/year) attributable to AFs and OTA exposure from sorghum was estimated to be 5.99 × 105 and 0.24 × 105 cases for HBsAg + individuals based on 13.6% HBV incidence. Similarly, the HCC/year for AFs and OTA were assessed to be 3.59 × 105 and 0.14 × 105 at an 8.1% prevalence rate. Therefore, the results of this study demonstrate the high prevalence and dietary exposure to mycotoxins through sorghum consumption, raising public health and trade concerns.

[Occurrence and exposure assessment of fumonisins from grains and grain products in Zhejiang Province in 2018-2019].

OBJECTIVE: To monitor fumonisins(FBs) in grains and grain products in Zhejiang and assess the exposure risks of FBs to local residents. METHODS: Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry method was used to determine the occurrence of FBs in rice, millet, dried noodles, instant noodles, and maize grains, and food frequency questionnaires were used to collect the food consumption data of Zhejiang population. Then, the simple probability distribution model was used to assess the exposure risk. RESULTS: The levels of FBs in rice, millet, dried noodles and instant noodles were relatively low. The occurrence of FB_1, FB_2 and FB_3 in these foods was 0-23.7%, 0-16.7% and 0-5.4%, respectively, and the mean levels were not detected(ND)-22.36, ND-20.63 and ND-7.19 µg/kg correspondingly. However, the levels of FBs in maize grains were relatively high. The occurrence of FB_1, FB_2, and FB_3 in maize grains was 100%, 93.6% and 90.3%, respectively, and the mean levels were 638.99, 103.54 and 59.69 µg/kg correspondingly. In 12.9% of the maize grain samples, the levels of FBs were higher than the standard reference. The residents were at low exposure risk overall. The mean estimated daily intake(EDI) of FBs was far lower than the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 2 µg/(kg·BW·d). However, 0.30% of the residents were at high risk. Among people of different ages, the mean EDI of children, adults, and elderly were 0.43, 0.28 and 0.29 µg/(kg·BW·d) respectively, and children were in the highest exposure levels of FBs. Among the tested five foodstuffs, rice and maize grains were the main sources of FBs exposure. CONCLUSION: Except for maize grains, the levels of FBs in grains and grain products were relatively low, and Zhejiang residents were at low FBs exposure risk generally.

Assessment of Agricultural Practices for Controlling Fusarium and Mycotoxins Contamination on Maize Grains: Exploratory Study in Maize Farms.

Maize is a significant crop to the global economy and a key component of food and feed, although grains and whole plants can often be contaminated with mycotoxins resulting in a general exposure of the population and animals. To investigate strategies for mycotoxins control at the grain production level, a pilot study and exploratory research were conducted in 2019 and 2020 to compare levels of mycotoxins in grains of plants treated with two fertilizers, F-BAC and Nefusoil, under real agricultural environment. The 1650 grains selected from the 33 samples were assessed for the presence of both Fusarium species and mycotoxins. Only fumonisins and deoxynivalenol were detected. Fumonisin B1 ranged from 0 to 2808.4 µg/Kg, and fumonisin B2 from 0 to 1041.9 µg/Kg, while deoxynivalenol variated from 0 to 465.8 µg/Kg. Nefusoil showed to be promising in regard to fumonisin control. Concerning the control of fungal contamination rate and the diversity of Fusarium species, no significant differences were found between the two treatments in any of the years. However, a tendency for was observed Nefusoil of lower values, probably due to the guaranteed less stressful conditions to the Fusarium spp. present in the soil, which do not stimulate their fumonisins production.

Total aflatoxin, aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A and fumonisin in dry dog food: A risk assessment for dog health.

The aim of this study was to measure total aflatoxin (AFT), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OCA) and fumonisin (FUM) concentrations in dry dog feed and to evaluate the risk to animal health posed by their increased levels. A total of 90 dry food samples, which were commercially available to the owner, were collected from different shops in Turkey. Some of the food samples were collected from open packages, from which the dry food was sold in smaller amounts. Using commercial Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay test kits, all samples were examined for AFT, AFB1, OCA, and FUM concentrations. High-performance liquid chromatography was used for confirmation of measured parameters in 30 samples. The ELISA tests found AFT, AFB1, OCA, and FM concentrations (ng g -1) as 1.66, 0.64, 2.14, and 87.06, respectively. In terms of risk assessment, consumption of the dry foods, which are contaminated by AFT, AFB1 and OCA due possibly to the fact that the dry foods are produced from inappropriate raw material or sold in open packages in smaller amounts, poses a significant health risk for dogs. As a result, it is necessary to monitor the mycotoxin load in dry dog food as the use of raw materials of poor quality and selling the feed in smaller amounts from open packages over an uncertain time period predispose the dry feed to the growth of mycotoxin, especially when the storage conditions are favorable.

Level of contamination with deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and fumonisins in cereal products - assessment of consumer exposure.

OBJECTIVE: The main aim of this study was to determine the content of mycotoxins, such as: deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA) and fumonisins (FUM) in cereal products, and such products intended for infants. The secondary objective was to assess consumer exposure to the DON, ZEA and FUM occurring in cereal products, including those intended for infants and young children. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study included cereals and cereal products such as flours, grits, pastas, products of the bakery industry, snacks and cereal products intended for infants and young children, available in retail outlets in the Malopolska Province of Poland. DON content was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography with a DAD detector, while the contents of ZEA and FUM were detected by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. RESULTS: The determined concentration of mycotoxins exceeded the maximum level specified in food law in only two cases. DON level in maize flour was 1511.0 µg kg-1 and exceeded the maximal residue level (MRL) set at 750.0 µg kg-1. The value of MRL for ZEA was over the permissible value of 75.0 µg kg-1 in the maize flour sample only, and was 212.0 µg kg-1. None of the samples examined was beyond the permissible level of FUM. CONCLUSIONS: Levels higher than those permissible for the examined cereal products were noted in only two cases. FUMs were the most commonly found Fusarium mycotoxins, followed by DON and ZEA. The mean exposure doses of the assessed mycotoxins, resulting from the consumption of cereal products in the selected populations, were at low levels (reaching a maximum of 6.81%) and did not exceed the tolerable daily intake (TDI) or provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI). Therefore, the observed average chronic exposure dose not pose a health risk to consumers.

Validation and Application of a Low-Cost Sorting Device for Fumonisin Reduction in Maize.

Fumonisin mycotoxins are a persistent challenge to human and livestock health in tropical and sub-tropical maize cropping systems, and more efficient methods are needed to reduce their presence in food systems. We constructed a novel, low-cost device for sorting grain, the "DropSort", and tested its effectiveness on both plastic kernel models and fumonisin-contaminated maize. Sorting plastic kernels of known size and shape enabled us to optimize the sorting performance of the DropSort. The device sorted maize into three distinct fractions as measured by bulk density and 100-kernel weight. The level of fumonisin was lower in the heaviest fractions of maize compared to the unsorted samples. Based on correlations among fumonisin and bulk characteristics of each fraction, we found that light fraction 100-kernel weight could be an inexpensive proxy for unsorted fumonisin concentration. Single kernel analysis revealed significant relationships among kernel fumonisin content and physical characteristics that could prove useful for future sorting efforts. The availability of a low-cost device (materials~USD 300) that can be used to reduce fumonisin in maize could improve food safety in resource-limited contexts in which fumonisin contamination remains a pressing challenge.

[Assessment of Modified Forms of Fumonisins in Corn-Based Products Retailed in Japan by an Alkaline Hydrolysis Method].

Fumonisins, which are secondary metabolites produced by some Fusarium species, are detected mainly in corn and corn-based products. Recently, the presence of modified forms of fumonisins in fumonisin-contaminated food products has been reported. In order to evaluate the health risk of modified forms of fumonisins to the Japanese population, we analyzed modified forms of fumonisins in corn-based products retailed in Japan. The modified and free forms of fumonisins in food samples were hydrolyzed by alkaline treatment. The resulting hydrolyzed fumonisins were quantified by LC-MS/MS, and total fumonisins (sum of modified and free forms) was calculated. A total of 166 samples of corn-based products were analyzed over two years. The relative ratios of mean total fumonisins to mean free fumonisins in the cornflakes, corn snacks, corn flour and powdered corn soup samples were 4.7, 2.8, 2.1 and 1.2, respectively. Total fumonisins in the residual solid of five cornflake and three corn snack samples obtained after extraction with methanol-water (3 : 1) were quantified. In the cornflakes and corn snacks samples, 56-72 and 83-98% of the modified forms of fumonisins were present in the residual solid, respectively. The average daily intake of fumonisins from cornflakes and corn snacks by the Japanese population was estimated at 1.1 to 3.9 ng/kg body weight/day when the results of free fumonisins were used for the estimate, but when the results of total fumonisins were used, average daily intake increased about three times and was estimated at 3.3 to 12.5 ng/kg body weigh/day. These results indicate that a risk assessment of fumonisins, including the modified forms of fumonisins, is necessary in order to evaluate the true risk of fumonisins to Japanese people.

Occurrence and Probabilistic Risk Assessment of Fumonisin B1, Fumonisin B2 and Deoxynivalenol in Nixtamalized Maize in Mexico City.

Fumonisins (FB1+FB2) and deoxynivalenol (DON) are mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species that might be present in maize and maize products. Knowledge on their occurrence in nixtamalized maize from Mexico together with an accompanying risk assessment are scarce, while nixtamalized maize is an important food in Mexico. This study presents the occurrence of FB1 + FB2 and DON in nixtamalized maize samples collected in Mexico City and analyses their distribution and resulting estimated daily intake for Mexican consumers by a probabilistic approach using a two-dimensional Monte-Carlo simulation. The results obtained reveal that for FB1 + FB2, 47% of the Mexican men and 30% of the Mexican women might exceed the provisional tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of 2 µg/kg bw/day for fumonisins and for DON, 9% of men and 5% of women would be exceeding the PMTDI of 1 µg/kg bw/day, corresponding to the high consumers. The results raise a flag for risk managers in Mexico, to consider regulations and interventions that lower mycotoxin levels in nixtamalized maize for human consumption.

Assessment of Fumonisin B1 Concentrations in Wheat and Barley Products in the Punjab Region of Pakistan.

ABSTRACT: A total of 133 samples of whole wheat and barley grains and wheat and barley flour collected from retail markets in the main cities of Punjab, Pakistan, were analyzed for the mycotoxin fumonisin B1 (FB1) using reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Of these samples, 120 (90%) were positive for FB1, and 75 (63%) of the 120 positive samples had FB1 concentrations higher than the European Union maximum (200 µg/kg). The limit of detection was 4 µg/kg. The highest mean (±SD) concentration of FB1 was found in whole wheat samples, 980.5 ± 211.4 µg/kg. The calculated dietary intakes of FB1 from wheat and barley flours were 4,456 and 503.7 ng/g of body weight per day, respectively.

Assessment of dietary exposure to deoxynivalenol and fumonisin in the population of infants and toddlers in Turkey.

This study aims to estimate dietary exposure to deoxynivalenol and fumonisins (FBs) of infants and toddlers in Turkey. A total of 75 processed cereal-based foods intended for infants and toddlers collected between July and October 2018, were analysed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). DON was determined in 21.3% of samples with mean middle bound (MB) level of 28.4 µg/kg. Of the 16 quantifiable samples, only one showed values above 200 µg/kg. Fumonisin B1 (FB1) was detected at quantifiable levels only in three samples, while FB2 was not found in any sample. Estimated mean MB chronic dietary exposures to DON in infants and toddlers were 0.161 and 0.118 µg/kg b.w. per day, while 95th percentile (P95) MB exposures to DON were estimated at 0.564 and 0.414 µg/kg b.w. per day, respectively. Mean MB dietary exposures to FBs for infants and toddlers, respectively, were 0.093 and 0.068 µg/kg b.w. per day; P95 exposure estimates were 0.079 and 0.058 µg/kg b.w. per day. Both for DON and FBs, mean and P95 exposures of infants and toddlers did not exceeded the threshold level of 1 µg/kg b.w. per day and are therefore not of health concern.

Assessment of Fungal Contamination in Fish Feed from the Lake Victoria Basin, Uganda.

The emergence of commercial fish farming has stimulated the establishment of fish feed factories in Uganda. However, no information is available on the safety of the feed, mainly due to lack of mycotoxin testing facilities and weak regulatory systems. A study was carried out to examine fungal colonization and mycotoxin contamination in fish feed samples (n = 147) of different types collected from nine fish farms (n = 81) and seven fish feed factories (n = 66) in the Lake Victoria Basin (LVB). Fungi were isolated in potato dextrose agar, grouped into morphotypes and representative isolates from each morphotype were identified based on the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of ribosomal DNA sequences. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and total fumonisin (combinations of B1, B2 and B3; hereinafter named fumonisin) levels in feed samples were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). A wide range of fungi, including toxigenic Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium verticillioides, were isolated from the fish feed samples. AFB1 was detected in 48% of the factory samples and in 63% of the farm samples, with toxin levels <40 and >400 µg/kg, respectively. Similarly, 31% of the factory samples and 29% of the farm samples had fumonisin contamination ranging between 0.1 and 4.06 mg/kg. Pellets and powder had higher mycotoxin contamination compared to other commercially available fish feed types. This study shows AFB1 as a potential fish feed safety issue in the LVB and suggests a need for more research on mycotoxin residues in fish fillets.

Multi-Mycotoxin Occurrence and Exposure Assessment Approach in Foodstuffs from Algeria.

A survey on 120 cereal samples (barley, maize, rice and wheat) from Algerian markets has been carried out to evaluate the presence of 15 mycotoxins (ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, fumonisin B1 and B2, T-2 and HT-2 toxins, zearalenone, fusarenon X, citrinin, sterigmatocystin, enniatins A, A1, B and B1, and beauvericin). With this purpose, a QuEChERS-based extraction and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) were used. Analytical results showed that 78 cereal samples (65%) were contaminated with at least one toxin, while 50% were contaminated with three to nine mycotoxins. T-2 toxin, citrinin, beauvericin and deoxynivalenol were the most commonly found mycotoxins (frequency of 50%, 41.6%, 40.8% and 33.3%, respectively). Fumonisins (B1 + B2), enniatins B and B1, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone registered high concentrations (289-48878 µg/kg, 1.2-5288 µg/kg, 15-4569 µg/kg, 48-2055 µg/kg and 10.4-579 µg/kg, respectively). Furthermore, concentrations higher than those allowed by the European Union (EU) were observed in 21, 8 and 1 samples for fumonisins, zearalenone and deoxinivalenol, respectively. As a conclusion, the high levels of fumonisins (B1 + B2) in maize and deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and HT-2 + T-2 toxins in wheat, represent a health risk for the average adult consumer in Algeria. These results pointed out the necessity of a consistent control and the definition of maximum allowed levels for mycotoxins in Algerian foodstuffs.

Biosynthetic Mycotoxin Conjugate Mimetics-Mediated Green Strategy for Multiplex Mycotoxin Immunochromatographic Assay.

Various mycotoxins widely co-exist in agro-products, and their combined effects cause toxicity and potential carcinogenicity to humans and animals. In this work, we developed an economical and sensitive quantum dots (QDs)/QD microbead (QDs/QB)-based multiplex immunochromatographic assay (mICA) for the rapid detection of fumonisin B1 (FB1), zearalenone (ZEN), and ochratoxin A (OTA) without the building-up process of mycotoxin conjugates. QDs and QBs were selected as fluorescent reporters and conjugated with antimycotoxin monoclonal antibodies for improving sensitivity. Furthermore, phage-displayed FB1, ZEN, and OTA mimotope peptide-based soluble and monovalent fusions to maltose-binding protein (MBP) were applied onto the test line of the mICA as the mimetic coating antigen. Under the optimized conditions, the visual detection limits (vLODs) of peptide-MBP-based mICA could be obtained as 0.25 ng/mL for FB1, 3.0 ng/mL for ZEN, and 0.5 ng/mL for OTA within 10 min. The results for spiked real sample detection indicate good accuracy, reproducibility, and practicability. In addition, the proposed mICA was comparable with ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) in terms of reliability in detecting FB1, ZEN, and OTA using natural samples. From the point of promoting commercial production, these time-saving and low-cost peptide-MBP antigens applied in ICA might provide promising potential for promoting productivity and decreasing the cost of production.

Risk assessment for mycotoxin contamination in fish feeds in Europe.

Mycotoxins are difficult to monitor continuously, and a tool to assess the risk would help to judge if there is a particular risk due to the inclusion of certain feed ingredients. For this, the toxin contents of 97 commercial fish feeds have been estimated, and the most prominent toxins in fish feed are calculated to be deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins and enniatins. These pose a risk to fish well-being, as can be calculated by the Bayesian models for determining the critical concentrations 5% (CC5) for the different toxins. Besides fishmeal, wheat, soybean products and corn are regularly used as fish feed ingredients. The calculated scenarios show that fish are at high risk of toxin contamination if feed ingredients of low quality are chosen for feed production. Due to this, specific maximum allowable levels for several mycotoxins in fish feeds should be established.

Occurrence and Risk Assessment of Fumonisin B1 and B2 Mycotoxins in Maize-Based Food Products in Hungary.

Fumonisins are toxic secondary metabolites produced mainly by Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum. Their toxicity was evaluated, and health-based guidance values established on the basis of both Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) recommendations. This study presents the results of fumonisin analyses in different maize- and rice-based food products in Hungary and the potential health risk arising from their dietary intake. In total, 326 samples were measured in 2017 and 2018 to determine fumonisins B1 and B2 levels. Three-day dietary record data were collected from 4992 consumers, in 2009. For each food category, the average concentration values were multiplied by the relevant individual consumption data, and the results were compared to the reference values. With respect to the maximum limits, one maize flour, two maize grits, and two samples of other maize-based, snack-like products had total fumonisin content minimally exceeding the EU regulatory limit. The mean daily intake for all maize-product consumers was 0.045-0.120 µg/kg bw/day. The high intake (95 percentile) ranged between 0.182 and 0.396 µg/kg bw/day, well below the 1 µg/kg bw/day tolerable daily intake (TDI) established by EFSA. While the intake calculations resulted in comforting results, maize-based products may indeed be contaminated by fumonisins. Therefore, frequent monitoring of fumonisins' levels and evaluation of their intakes using the best available data are recommended.

Rural Subsistence Maize Farming in South Africa: Risk Assessment and Intervention models for Reduction of Exposure to Fumonisin Mycotoxins.

Maize is a staple crop in rural subsistence regions of southern Africa, is mainly produced for direct household consumption and is often contaminated with high levels of mycotoxins. Chronic exposure to mycotoxins is a risk factor for human diseases as it is implicated in the development of cancer, neural tube defects as well as stunting in children. Although authorities may set maximum levels, these regulations are not effective in subsistence farming communities. As maize is consumed in large quantities, exposure to mycotoxins will surpass safe levels even where the contamination levels are below the regulated maximum levels. It is clear that the lowering of exposure in these communities requires an integrated approach. Detailed understanding of agricultural practices, mycotoxin occurrence, climate change/weather patterns, human exposure and risk are warranted to guide adequate intervention programmes. Risk communication and creating awareness in affected communities are also critical. A range of biologically based products for control of mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in maize have been developed and commercialised. Application of these methods is limited due to a lack of infrastructure and resources. Other challenges regarding integration and sustainability of technological and community-based mycotoxin reduction strategies include (i) food security, and (ii) the traditional use of mouldy maize.

Assessment of Aflatoxin and Fumonisin Contamination and Associated Risk Factors in Feed and Feed Ingredients in Rwanda.

Mycotoxins are fungal metabolites that contaminate crops, food, and animal feeds. Aflatoxins and fumonisins are among the mycotoxins that have been increasingly reported to affect health and productivity of livestock globally. Given that the health and productivity of livestock can directly influence human food safety and security, a study was conducted to assess the levels and factors for aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination in feed and feed ingredients in Rwanda. Aflatoxins and fumonisins were analyzed in 3328 feed and feed ingredient samples collected at six time points between March and October 2017 in all 30 districts of Rwanda. Of the 612 participants providing samples, there were 10 feed processors, 68 feed vendors, 225 dairy farmers, and 309 poultry farmers. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) was used for aflatoxin and fumonisin analyses. Mean aflatoxin levels of 108.83 µg/kg (Median (MD): 43.65 µg/kg), 103.81µg/kg (MD: 48.4 µg/kg), 88.64 µg/kg (MD: 30.90 µg/kg), and 94.95 µg/kg (MD: 70.45 µg/kg) were determined for dairy farmers, poultry farmers, feed vendors, and feed processors, respectively. Mean fumonisin levels were 1.52 mg/kg (MD: 0.71 mg/kg), 1.21 mg/kg (MD: 0.56 mg/kg), 1.48 mg/kg (MD: 0.76 mg/kg), and 1.03 mg/kg (MD: 0.47 mg/kg) for dairy farmers, poultry farmers, feed vendors, and feed processors, respectively. Aflatoxin contamination was significantly affected by time of sampling and district from which feed samples originated (p < 0.05). Fumonisins did not show any correlation trends. Ninety-two percent of survey participants were unaware of aflatoxins and fumonisins and their adverse effects. This study has provided the basic understanding of the extent of feed contamination across the country and has established a baseline for future interventions in Rwanda. Further studies are needed to explore strategies for mitigating mycotoxins in the feed value chain in Rwanda.

Risk assessment of exposure to mycotoxins (aflatoxins and fumonisins) through corn tortilla intake in Veracruz City (Mexico).

This study aimed to assess aflatoxin and fumonisin intake through corn tortilla consumption in Veracruz city. Between October 2013 and February 2015, a total of 120 corn tortilla samples (2 kg samples, 40 samples per year) were randomly collected. Aflatoxins and fumonisins were quantified by high performance liquid chromatography coupled with a fluorescence detector. A probability density function (PDF) was used for describing corn tortilla intake, body weight of the Veracruz city population, mycotoxin content of corn tortilla samples and estimated mycotoxin daily intake. The Monte Carlo method with 10,000 iterations was employed to assess the population exposure risk. The highest level of total aflatoxins (AFT) was 22.17 µg kg-1, and 526.6 µg kg-1 for fumonisins B1 plus B2, with 85% and 90% of contaminated samples respectively. Up to 69.7 % of the population was estimated to consume a higher aflatoxin dose than that recommended by the JECFA (1 ng kg-1 of body weight per day); it was found that the recommended dose was exceeded to a greater extent in the male population, due to higher consumption of corn. The risk of fumonisin intake was less than 5 % due to the low presence and levels of these toxins in corn tortillas. The results suggest that corn tortilla consumers are at dietary risk caused by AFT contamination; this information should be considered when taking action to protect public health.