The role of lignin and lignin-based materials in sustainable construction - A comprehensive review.

The construction industry in the 21st century faces numerous global challenges associated with growing concerns for the environment. Therefore, this review focuses on the role of lignin and its derivatives in sustainable construction. Lignin's properties are defined in terms of their structure/property relationships and how structural differences arising from lignin extraction methods influence its application within the construction sector. Lignin and lignin composites allow the partial replacement of petroleum products, making the final materials and the entire construction sector more sustainable. The latest technological developments associated with cement composites, rigid polyurethane foams, paints and coatings, phenolic or epoxy resins, and bitumen replacements are discussed in terms of key engineering parameters. The application of life cycle assessment in construction, which is important from the point of view of estimating the environmental impact of various solutions and materials, is also discussed.

Assessment of hepatic functions, hematopoietic cytokines and haematological parameters in people occupationally exposed to volatile petroleum hydrocarbons.

Humans are occupationally exposed to volatile petroleum hydrocarbons through inhalation and ingestion. To access the effect of exposure to volatile hydrocarbons, hematopoietic cytokines, haematological parameters and hepatic functions were assayed for in 100 subjects. Male participants showed significant increase (p < 0.05) in erythropoietin, interleukin-3, alanine transaminase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), mean cell hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), mean cell volume (MCV) and significant decrease (p < 0.05) in mean cell hemoglobin (MCH). Female participants showed significant increase (p < 0.05) in interleukin-3, ALT, AST, ALP, MCHC, MCV and significant decrease (p < 0.05) in MCH, platelets, hemoglobin and hematocrit compared to their controls. Exposure to volatile petroleum hydrocarbons raised the absolute red blood cell indices and liver enzymes and could stimulate combined increase in the release of erythropoietin and interleukin-3 leading to ineffective hematopoiesis.

Health risk indices and zooplankton-based assessment of a tropical rainforest river contaminated with iron, lead, cadmium, and chromium.

Oil exploration's devastation on health and the environment may far outweigh its economic benefits. An oil spill occurred at Egbokodo River in Delta State, Nigeria, thereby polluting the land and water bodies. The study was therefore aimed at evaluating the impacts of iron, lead, cadmium, and chromium on the zooplankton community structure of Egbokodo River and the potential health risks. Zooplankton and surface water samples were collected to investigate the concentrations of trace metals and zooplankton abundance. The associated carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects of the metals in the water were analyzed. Trace metal concentrations in the surface water were determined using atomic absorption spectroscopy (Philips model PU 9100) and zooplankton samples were collected using a hydrobios plankton net (mesh size 25 µm). Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) and oil and grease (OG) were determined using Agilent 7890B gas chromatography coupled to flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and volumetric analysis respectively. The trend of the abundance of zooplanktons cross the river was 18 individuals (Station A) < 100 individuals (Station B) < 155 individuals (Station C). Cyclopoida proved to be the most resilient to the impacts of the oil spill. On a taxa basis, the order of abundance among Calanoida, Cyclopoida, Cladoceran, and Harpacticoida was Station C > Station B > Station A, except in Amphipoda where Station B > Station C > Station A was observed. Iron and lead posed significant carcinogenic risks that are liable to be inflicted by the ingestion of the water. The cumulative non-carcinogenic health risk in the male was the only significant (> 1) among the age groups. Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), oil and grease (OG), iron, and lead had notable impacts on the general abundance of zooplankton in the aquatic habitat. The dominance of the Cyclopoida in the river buttressed the impact of the oil spill which warrants a prompt remediation measure. The pollution had notable ecological impacts on the zooplankton community structure of the aquatic habitat. The adults in the nearby human populations are liable to elicit carcinogenic health challenges associated with lead and iron ingestion. The males are at risk of non-carcinogenic illnesses which are associated with the combined toxicity effects of all the metals. The study suggests that the pollution in Egbokodo River was validated by the dominance of the Cyclopoida in the aquatic habitat. The study confers bioindicator reputation on the Cyclopoida for future biomonitoring studies.

Utilization of road dust chemical profiles for source identification and human health impact assessment.

This study investigated the chemical profiles of fine urban road dust as a set of indicators for major air pollutants at sampling sites or as proxies for potential human health impacts. We examined the chemical compositions of fine particles (< 100 µm) or re-suspended ultrafine particles (< 2.5 µm) in the urban road dust collected from the cities with major emission sources of CO, NH3, NOx, PM2.5, SOx, and volatile organic compounds. The elemental compositions, including metal contents and volatile or semi-volatile organic compound species were determined to constitute comprehensive chemical profiles of the solid road dust samples. The water-extractable organic compounds and fluorescent species of the size-fractionated re-suspended fine particulate matter (RPM) were also incorporated in the chemical profiles. The metal content and aliphatic hydrocarbons could partly distinguish emission sources, and clearer distinctions were achieved with the inclusion of fluorescence excitation-emission matrix (EEM) results. The dose-response test results showed positive correlations between cytotoxicity and relative abundance of hydrocarbons or metal contents of urban road dust. The set of chemical profiles suggested in this study could be further utilized for site identification or human health impact assessment using urban road dust.

Does a more refined assessment of exposure to bitumen fume and confounders alter risk estimates from a nested case-control study of lung cancer among European asphalt workers?

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether a refined assessment of exposure to bitumen fume among workers in the European asphalt industry within a nested case-control study resulted in a different interpretation pertaining to risk of lung cancer mortality compared with the cohort study. METHODS: Pearson correlation coefficients between refined and original estimates were calculated. Logistic regression and generalised additive models (penalised splines) were fitted to estimate ORs for exposure to bitumen fume using the refined and original exposure estimates, respectively, while adjusting for potential confounding. RESULTS: 1555 subjects included in the nested case-control study had both refined and original estimates for exposure to bitumen fume. Exposure assessment in the nested case-control study (compared with the cohort phase) increased the number of subjects never-exposed to bitumen fume from 18% to 32%. From the 1282 subjects originally considered exposed in the cohort phase, 309 (24%) became unexposed after the nested case-control exposure assessment. From the 273 subjects originally considered non-exposed in the cohort phase, 87 (32%) became exposed in the nested case-control study. The majority (75%) of subjects however did not change exposure status and changes were similar among cases and controls. Correlation coefficients between refined and original exposure estimates were moderate overall (range 0.42-0.46), but varied considerably among countries. The ORs and exposure-response curves for exposure to bitumen fume were not meaningfully different between analyses that used refined and original exposure estimates. Adjustment for tobacco smoking and exposure to coal tar did not change these patterns. CONCLUSIONS: Our results showed that more detailed data collection and exposure assessment in the nested case-control study compared with the cohort study did change exposure status of many subjects, but did not alter results of the exposure-response analysis. Adjustment for tobacco smoking did not have a noticeable effect on risk estimates either.

Aliphatic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Xihe River, an urban river in China's Shenyang City: distribution and risk assessment.

The characteristics of petroleum hydrocarbons and the risks they pose to the ecosystem were studied in the Xihe River, which is an urban river located in Shenyang, China. High levels of aliphatic hydrocarbons (AHc) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were observed in the river due to the discharge of wastewater from industrial and municipal facilities for a long period of time. High-molecular-weight hydrocarbons, including unresolved complex mixtures (UCM) of n-alkanes between n-C16 and n-C32 and of PAHs with four to six rings, were the dominant hydrocarbons in the river, particularly in suspended particulate matter (SPM) and sediments. The AHc was mainly from petrogenic sources, whereas PAHs was from both pyrolytic and petrogenic source inputs. Our results suggest that there is a high risk of toxicity for the soils and groundwater of the study area. The overall toxicity in the sediments can be described using the toxic equivalent (TEQ) of dibenzo[a,h]anthracene (DBA) based on benzo(a)pyrene (TEQ(BaP)) and dioxins (TEQ(TCDD)) toxic equivalent concentrations. The TEQ values for benzo(a)pyrene (TEQ(BaP)) and dioxins (TEQ(TCDD)) presented a consistent assessment of sediment PAHs.

A novel total petroleum hydrocarbon fractionation strategy for human health risk assessment for petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated site management.

Human health risk assessments for petroleum, oil, and lubricant (POL)-contaminated sites are more complicated than for sites contaminated by single compounds due to the complex composition and various analytical methods associated with total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH). Although several TPH fractionation methods are commonly used, including that of the TPH Criteria Working Group (TPHCWG), an efficient and economical human health risk assessment method is not yet available. To address this concern, a new modified fractionation strategy is recommended in this study, which resolves the problems of the current TPH fractionation methods while retaining reliability in the results. For the purpose of this study, the distribution characteristics of the 13 TPHCWG fractions were examined, and human health risk assessments for the POL-contaminated sites were performed. The results show that aliphatic EC8-16 and aromatic EC10-21 among the 13 TPH fractions are major contributors to human health risks along all exposure routes, making up approximately 96% of the hazard index (HI) of the TPH fractions, on average. Therefore, it is reasonable to concentrate on aliphatic EC8-16 and aromatic EC10-21 fractions, rather than to study all of the TPH fractions, in evaluating human health risk for TPH-contaminated sites.

Retrospective exposure assessment for carcinogenic agents in bitumen waterproofing industry in Finland and denmark.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of the study was (i) to identify the carcinogenic agents that may cause confounding when studying the exposure-response relationship between bitumen fume exposure and cancer among roofing membrane-manufacturing workers and roofers and (ii) to assess exposures to the identified carcinogens and bitumen fume in roofing membrane manufacturing and roofing in Finland and Denmark from 1950 to 2005. METHODS: Information on the use of carcinogenic agents and other relevant data were collected through semi-structured interviews of senior employees in the industry. Semi-quantitative exposure assessments were made on the basis of available measurement data and information obtained from the interviews and literature. RESULTS: Most of the production line workers in roofing membrane plants in Finland were exposed to asbestos until the mid-1970s. Also, some of the mixer operators in the plants were exposed to asbestos in Finland during the 1970s and in Denmark from the mid-1960s to the mid-1980s. In both countries, coal tar pitch was used in roofing membrane manufacturing until the mid-1960s, and consequently, exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the plants was high in the 1950s and still significant in the early 1960s. Exposure of production line workers to quartz dust was high until the 1980s and is still relatively high compared with current occupational exposure limit values. Bitumen roofers' exposure to coal tar-derived PAHs may have been significant in both countries until the end of 1960s. Roofers' exposure to asbestos and quartz was estimated to have been near background level. CONCLUSIONS: The estimated average annual exposures to asbestos, coal tar-derived PAHs and quartz dust in the bitumen waterproofing industry in Finland and Denmark were significant in the past but have a clear declining trend. Exposure to bitumen fume was found to follow a similar trend.

Sensitivity of the association between increased lung cancer risk and bitumen fume exposure to the assumptions in the assessment of exposure.

PURPOSE: A multi-centre IARC-coordinated European cohort study provided evidence of an association between lung cancer risk and bitumen fume exposure. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to assess whether these associations were robust to assumptions in the exposure assessment for which support could not be obtained due to lack of either measurements or direct observations. METHODS: New exposure estimates were generated by changing assumptions on exposure levels, specific tasks, lags, and coal tar use. Subsequently, Poisson regression models estimated relative risks (RRs); change in fit of models was evaluated. RESULTS: The influence of these assumptions was minimal, with log-likelihood deviations between -5.0 and 4.7% and similar patterns in dose-dependent increases of lung cancer risk. In the highest exposure categories, point estimates of RRs ranged 2.07-2.83 for average, and 1.22-2.23 for cumulative exposure. CONCLUSIONS: The small increase in lung cancer risk associated with bitumen fume exposure depends only to a limited extent on the subjective judgments made in the exposure assessment for this cohort.

Assessment of DNA damage in WBCs of workers occupationally exposed to fumes and aerosols of bitumen.

We conducted a cross-shift study with 66 bitumen-exposed mastic asphalt workers and 49 construction workers without exposure to bitumen. Exposure was assessed using personal monitoring of airborne bitumen exposure, urinary 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHP), and the sum of 1-, 2 + 9-,3-,4-hydroxyphenanthrene (OHPH). Genotoxic effects in WBC were determined with nonspecific DNA adduct levels of 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodGuo) and the formation of DNA strand breaks and alkali-labile sites. Concentration of fumes and aerosols of bitumen correlated significantly with the concentrations of 1-OHP and OHPH after shift (r(s) = 0.27; P = 0.03 and r(s) = 0.55; P < 0.0001, respectively). Bitumen-exposed workers had more DNA strand breaks than the reference group (P < 0.0001) at both time points and a significant correlation with 1-OHP and OHPH in the postshift urines (r(s) = 0.32; P = 0.001 and r(s) = 0.27; P = 0.004, respectively). Paradoxically, we measured higher levels of DNA strand breaks, although not significant, in both study groups before shift. 8-OxodGuo adduct levels did not correlate with DNA strand breaks. Further, 8-oxodGuo levels were associated neither with personal exposure to bitumen nor with urinary metabolite concentrations. Significantly more DNA adducts were observed after shift not only in bitumen-exposed workers but also in the reference group. Only low-exposed workers had significantly elevated 8-oxodGuo adduct levels before as well as after shift (P = 0.0002 and P = 0.02, respectively). Our results show that exposure to fumes and aerosols of bitumen may contribute to an increased DNA damage assessed with strand breaks.

[Assessment of exposure to organic aromatic compounds and PAH in asphalt industry: the PPTP-POPA Study results]. / Valutazione dell'esposizione a composti organici aromatici e IPA nelle opere di asfaltatura: i risultati dello Studio PPTP-POPA.

Asphalt is a mixture of mineral matter and bitumen, its fumes contain about 1% of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH), some of which are carcinogens. In the PPTP-POPA Study of Lombardy Region, a group of 100 asphalt workers (exposed to bitumen fumes and diesel exhausts) and a group of 47 ground construction operators (exposed only to diesel exhausts) were investigated to assess PAH exposure in Italy, by means of environmental-air monitoring (the 16 most relevant, according to the American Environmental Protection Agency, EPA) and biological monitoring (urinary 1-hydroxypyrene excretion). Our results show that PAH exposure in these workers is not higher than that observed in traffic policemen working in urban areas. Since dermal exposure has been suggested as a major determinant of the total PAH dose absorbed by road pavers from bitumen fumes, we assessed skin contamination by organic aromatic compounds and by sixteen PAH: in both groups, six pads were applied to each subject in different parts of the body, during the workshift. The results show that the dermal contamination in road pavers is higher than in ground construction operators and that cutaneous dose rate is higher than respiratory dose rate, whereas the amount of absorption the ratio is inverted.

Post-impact assessment of oil pollution in Agbada west plain of Niger Delta, Nigeria: field reconnaissance and total extractable hydrocarbon content.

Typical post-impact assessment of an oil-spill-impacted site in Agbada west plain of the Niger Delta basin of Nigeria was carried out 13 months after recorded incidence of spillage, using empirical indices of reconnaissance and extractable hydrocarbon content. Field-reconnaissance surveys revealed lower species' numbers and diversity of surface and subterranean flora and fauna. The presence and absence of such plant species as Elaeis guineensis, Musanga cecropiodes, and Andropogon gayanus, as well as animal species like earthworms and nematodes in sampled plots, corroborated the evidence provided by the total extractable hydrocarbon content (of (2.53+/-0.43)x10(2) mg/kg and (2.00+/-0.76)x10(2) mg/kg at surface and subsurface depths, resp.) on the level of degradation and/or regeneration at the polluted site. The most important evidence that oiling must have been responsible, at least in part, for the reduction in species' number and diversity was provided by the plant cover, Andropogan gayanus, which occurred at a lower density of 0.9 plants/m2 in the oil-impacted plots and 14.00 plants/m2 in the unimpacted reference plots of an adjacent, geographically similar area. The presence of this species on site thus presented a significant difference (P<0.05) of over 85%, and indicated exhaustion or impoverishment of impacted soils. Elaeis guineensis, with a population density of 0.1 stands/m2, provided evidence of past cultivation on site, while species like Musanga cecropioides, with a density of 0.5 stands/m2, at the unimpacted site, confirmed the abandonment of the farmstead over a long period of time. For the fauna, the most sensitive indicator of hydrocarbon toxicity was provided by nematode Xiphinema sp. that were completely absent in the oil-impacted site.

Landfarming operation of oily sludge in arid region--human health risk assessment.

Landfarming is becoming one of the most preferred treatment technologies for oily sludge disposal in the Arabian Gulf region in general, and in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in particular. This technology is considered to be, economical, energy efficient, and environmentally friendly with minimal residue disposal problems. Application of this technology in the region is simply based on the studies conducted in the United States of America and Europe. There have hardly been any scientific studies conducted to evaluate performance of landfarming technology under arid conditions. Recently, detailed field experimental study has been conducted to evaluate the degradation process and health risk issues in landfarming under arid conditions. The study observed volatilization as the main process of hydrocarbon degradation, which can cause significantly high concentration of airborne volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere leading to serious human health risk to the onsite workers. It is particularly true in the early phase of the landfarming process (first 2 months from initial loading). This paper elaborates these findings in detail.

Natural resource damage assessments in the United States: rules and procedures for compensation from spills of hazardous substances and oil in waterways under US jurisdiction.

Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA) procedures in the US involve the use of uniform federally approved rules and procedures to assess economic losses and/or address restoration of injured resources that result from spills of hazardous substances and/or oil and petroleum substances in waterways under US jurisdiction. This effort started in the 1980s and involves two federal agencies that have developed separate federally approved procedures and rules, the US Department of Interior (US DOI) and the US Department of Commerce, National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (US DOC, NOAA). This paper provides a brief overview of the federal laws applicable to resource damage assessments in the US, review of NRDA rules and procedures, and progress to date regarding US cases.

Hydrocarbon emissions and health risks from cookstoves in developing countries.

The nonmethane hydrocarbon emissions from several types of cookstoves commonly used in developing countries were measured in a pilot study conducted in Manila, the Philippines. Four types of fuel, i.e., wood, charcoal, kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), were tested. Because kerosene was burned in three different types of stoves, there were six fuel/stove combinations tested. Fifty-nine nonmethane hydrocarbons were identified frequently in emissions of these cookstoves, with emission ratios to CO2 up to 5.3 x 10(-3). The emissions were quantitated with emission factors on both a mass basis (emissions/kg fuel) and a task basis (emissions/cooking task). On a task basis, combustion of biomass fuels (wood and charcoal) generally produced higher emission factors than combustion of fossil fuels (kerosene and LPG). One type of kerosene stove (wick stove), however, still generated the greatest emissions of some individual and classes of hydrocarbons, indicating that emissions were dependent on not only fuel types but also combustion devices. Some hydrocarbons, e.g., benzene, 1,3-butadiene, styrene, and xylenes, were of concern because of their carcinogenic properties. The lifetime risk from exposures to these compounds emitted from cookstoves was tentatively estimated by using a simple exposure model and published cancer potencies.