[The "homeopathic specific:" commercial legitimization of homeopathy in Barcelona (1902-1910)]. / El "específico homeopático": legitimación comercial de la homeopatía en Barcelona (1902-1910).

The change in position of homeopathic remedies in the health market produced by the emerging pharmacological paradigm was key to the popularization of homeopathy in Spain. The introduction of specifics and their marketing strategies led to a rise in popular legitimization of homeopathy, and the battles between different professionals created fertile ground for explaining and promoting this doctrine. This article analyzes a contextualized case in Barcelona in the early twentieth century, and explores from different perspectives the new role of pharmacists and medications in spreading homeopathy, centering on strategies for popularizing homeopathic remedies in Spain.

El cambio en la posición que ocupaban los remedios homeopáticos en el mercado de la salud, derivado del emergente paradigma farmacológico, fue clave en la popularización de la homeopatía en España. La introducción de los específicos y sus técnicas de publicidad originó un aumento en la legitimación popular de la homeopatía y encontró en las pugnas entre diferentes profesionales un terreno abonado para la divulgación y la promoción de esta doctrina. El artículo analiza un caso de estudio contextualizado en Barcelona a principios del siglo XX, aproximándose desde diferentes perspectivas al nuevo rol del farmacéutico y el medicamento como divulgadores de la homeopatía y centrándose en las estrategias de la popularización de los remedios homeopáticos en España.

Breaking the boundaries of professional regulation: medical licensing, foreign influence, and the consolidation of homeopathy in Mexico / Rompendo as barreiras da regulamentação profissional: licenciamento médico, influência estrangeira e consolidação da homeopatia no México

Abstract As doctors sought state support to regulate professional training and practice after Independence, Mexicans also developed different attitudes toward foreign ideas, influences, and professionals. Leveraging the allure of the foreign among Mexicans, homeopaths strategically used work, products, and organizations from abroad to establish their practices and fight changing professional policies in the country that threatened homeopathic institutions. Homeopaths inhabited the blurry and shifting boundary between professional and lay medical practice during the early Republican period, the Porfiriato, and the post-revolutionary era, and used the ambivalent feelings about medical licensing, and foreign influence in Mexican society to consolidate their position.

Resumo Após a independência do país, enquanto os médicos buscavam apoio do Estado para regulamentar o treinamento e a prática profissionais, os mexicanos desenvolveram atitudes diferentes em relação a ideias, influências e profissionais estrangeiros. Aproveitando o encanto dos mexicanos com o estrangeiro, os homeopatas usaram estrategicamente o trabalho, os produtos e as organizações de fora do país para implantar suas práticas e combater as políticas que ameaçavam as instituições ligadas à homeopatia. Os homeopatas ocuparam a barreira nebulosa entre as práticas médicas profissional e leiga no início do período republicano, no Porfiriato e na era pós-revolucionária, usando sentimentos ambivalentes sobre licenciamento médico e influência estrangeira para consolidar sua posição.

El " específico homeopático ": legitimación comercial de la homeopatía en Barcelona (1902-1910) / The " homeopathic specific: " commercial legitimization of homeopathy in Barcelona (1902-1910)

Resumen El cambio en la posición que ocupaban los remedios homeopáticos en el mercado de la salud, derivado del emergente paradigma farmacológico, fue clave en la popularización de la homeopatía en España. La introducción de los específicos y sus técnicas de publicidad originó un aumento en la legitimación popular de la homeopatía y encontró en las pugnas entre diferentes profesionales un terreno abonado para la divulgación y la promoción de esta doctrina. El artículo analiza un caso de estudio contextualizado en Barcelona a principios del siglo XX, aproximándose desde diferentes perspectivas al nuevo rol del farmacéutico y el medicamento como divulgadores de la homeopatía y centrándose en las estrategias de la popularización de los remedios homeopáticos en España.

Abstract The change in position of homeopathic remedies in the health market produced by the emerging pharmacological paradigm was key to the popularization of homeopathy in Spain. The introduction of specifics and their marketing strategies led to a rise in popular legitimization of homeopathy, and the battles between different professionals created fertile ground for explaining and promoting this doctrine. This article analyzes a contextualized case in Barcelona in the early twentieth century, and explores from different perspectives the new role of pharmacists and medications in spreading homeopathy, centering on strategies for popularizing homeopathic remedies in Spain.

Homeopathy 'for Mexicans': Medical Popularisation, Commercial Endeavours, and Patients' Choice in the Mexican Medical Marketplace, 1853-1872.

This paper focuses on homeopaths' strategies to popularise homeopathy from 1850 to 1870. I argue that homeopaths created a space for homeopathy in Mexico City in the mid-nineteenth century by facilitating patients' access to medical knowledge, consultation and practice. In this period, when national and international armed conflicts limited the diffusion and regulation of academic medicine, homeopaths popularised homeopathy by framing it as a life-enhancing therapy with tools that responded to patients' needs. Patients' preference for homeopathy evolved into commercial endeavours that promoted the practice of homeopathy through the use of domestic manuals. Using rare publications and archival records, I analyse the popularisation of homeopathy in Ramón Comellas's homeopathic manual, the commercialisation of Julián González's family guides, and patients' and doctors' reception of homeopathy. I show that narratives of conversion to homeopathy relied on the different experiences of patients and trained doctors, and that patients' positive experience with homeopathy weighed more than the doctors' efforts to explain to the public how academic medicine worked. The fact that homeopaths and patients used a shared language to describe disease experiences framed the possibility of a horizontal transmission of medical knowledge, opening up the possibility for patients to become practitioners. By relying on the long tradition of domestic medicine in Mexico, the popularisation of homeopathy disrupted the professional boundaries that academic physicians had begun to build, making homeopaths the largest group that challenged the emergent medical academic culture and its diffusion in Mexico in the nineteenth century.

[The company Willmar Schwabe in the Nazi era]. / Die Firma Willmar Schwabe in der NS-Zeit.

This essay follows the history of the Schwabe Company between 1933 and 1945 when it, like all other companies at the time, had to subject to the state-enforced conformity ('Gleichschaltung'). While Willmar Schwabe II (1878-1935), the company's second director, kept clear of Nazi politics, both of his sons, who succeeded him at an early age, became members of the Nazi party: Willmar III (1907-1983) probably from initial conviction and Wolfgang (1912-2000), who joined in 1937, more likely for opportunistic reasons. The two lay journals published by Schwabe--the Leipziger Populäre Zeitschrift für Homöopathie and the Biochemische Monatsblätter--embraced the Nazi ideology more thoroughly than the general homeopathic journal Allgemeine Homöopathische Zeitung, including above all contributions on racial hygiene. Our research has revealed that Schwabe only employed foreign workers from 1942 on, that their number was much lower, at 0.9 per cent in 1942 and 3.6 per cent in 1944, than that of other pharmaceutical companies and that their pay hardly differed from that of German workers. The sales and profit figures investigated have shown that the company did not profit exceptionally from the new Nazi health policies ('Neue Deutsche Heilkunde'): while its sales and profits rose in the Nazi era due to the increased use of medication among the civil population during wartime, the drugs produced by Schwabe remained marginal also during the war, as is apparent also from its modest deliveries to the army. All in all one can conclude that the company offered neither resistance nor particular support to the Nazi ideology.

[Advertising and Zeitgeist. The advertising of Schwabe Pharmaceuticals]. / Werbung und Zeitgeist. Die Inserate der Firma Dr. Willmar Schwabe.

This contribution explores the advertisements for homeopathic products in magazines in the first half of the twentieth century, focusing on the period between 1933 and 1945 and based on the example of the pharmaceutical company Dr Willmar Schwabe. In the first half of the twentieth century, Schwabe Pharmaceuticals was market leader for homeopathic and other complementary medical products (phytotherapy, biochemicals). The example chosen as well as the time frame complement the existing research. We searched three German publications (the homeopathy journal Leipziger Populäre Zeitschrift für Homöopathie, the medical weekly Münchner Medizinische Wochenschrift and the pharma magazine Pharmazeutische Zeitung) and collected target-group-specific results for laypersons, physicians and pharmacists. Analysis of the images and texts in the selected advertisements often reflected the historical background and the respective health policies (wartime requirements, times of need, "Neue Deutsche Heilkunde"). The history of this traditional company was seen as an important point in advertising, as were the recognisability of the brand through the company logo, the emphasis on the high quality of their products and the reference to the company's own research activities. We furthermore found the kind of argumentation that is typical of natural medicine (naturalness, the power of the sun, prominent representatives). Schwabe met the expectations of its clients, who were interested in complementary medicine, whilst pursuing an approach to homeopathy that was compatible with natural science, and it presented itself as a modern, scientifically oriented enterprise. The company did not lose credibility as a result, but increased its clientele by expanding to include the whole naturopathic market.

La homeopatía como propuesta válida para la atención primaria de salud / Homeopathy as a valid proposal for primary health care

Se plantea un análisis de la pertenencia histórica del empleo de la homeopatía, con valiosos datos que aparecen desde el siglo XIX en Cuba. Actualmente es una terapéutica de elección, tanto en países desarrollados como en vías de desarrollo, se estima que millones de personas son atendidas cada año con productos homeopáticos que además tienen muy bajos reportes de reacciones adversas. A partir de interrogantes tales como: ¿puede la homeopatía superar sus debilidades e impactar en la comunidad científica?; ¿existe certidumbre dentro de la ciencia que apoye la utilidad de la homeopatía para el médico de atención primaria de salud?; ¿conseguirá la homeopatía convertirse en herramienta terapéutica en la atención primaria de salud? Se pretende aclarar la validez de esta disciplina clínica para el médico de la familia, en su labor comunitaria, ya que es el único especialista que atiende integralmente a la familia con un enfoque clínico-epidemiológico. La homeopatía le ofrece la posibilidad de tratar al niño desde que es recién nacido, a la embarazada, al adulto y a los ancianos, tanto en sus enfermedades crónicas, como en las agudas e incluso en epidemias; además, puede contribuir a que mejore la calidad de vida de estos pacientes

We propose an analysis of historical association of using homeopathy with valuable data that appears from the nineteenth century in Cuba. Today it is a therapeutic choice in both developed and developing countries, it is estimated that millions of people are treated each year with homeopathic products, which also have very low adverse reaction reports. From such questions as: Can homeopathy overcome their weaknesses and impact in the scientific community? Is there certainty in science that supports the usefulness of homeopathy for the primary health care? Will homeopathy become a therapeutic tool in primary health care? It seeks to clarify the validity of this clinical discipline for the family physician in his/her community work, since it is the only specialist, who fully assists the family with a clinical and epidemiological approach. Homeopathy offers the possibility to treat children including the newly born, pregnant women, adults and the elderly, in their chronic and acute diseases, as well as in epidemics. It can also contribute to improve the quality of life for these patients

[Sanatoria for tourists, drugs at home, healers on demand: healing cultures in the Duchy of Gotha (1850-1950)]. / Sanatorien füir Touristen--Medikamente für zu Hause--Heilkundige nach Bedarf: Heilkulturen im Herzogtum Gotha (ca. 1850-ca. 1950).

Up to 1920 Thuringia was separated into many territories some of which were known for their unorthodox pharmaceutical industries. Gotha was the only famous duchy because one of its princes had married the Queen of England in 1840. The country was backward and the state administration was incapable of solving health issues. It was due to the interest of some physicians that the fragile balance between homeopathy, naturopathy, physicians and pharmacists broke down after 1900. But the state bureaucracy was unable to convince the people of its new healthcare approaches that were just based on scientific medicine.

[A short history of anti-rheumatic therapy. I. An introduction on traditional and drug treatments]. / Piccola storia della terapia antireumatica. I. Una premessa sulle terapie tradizionali e farmacologiche.

The origins of anti-rheumatic therapy are very old and mainly related to the use of traditional, sometimes extravagant, treatments, as a part of folk medicine. Spa therapy has long been used for the treatment of rheumatic diseases, as well as, in later times, physical treatments, including electrotherapy. Drug treatment has developed beginning from substances of vegetable origin, such as willow and colchicum extracts. Then it has been spread out through the chemical synthesis of compounds with specific action and therefore more effective, owing to the great development of pharmaceutical industry.

[Protomedicato and pharmacy in Castile at the end of the sixteenth century: "Catálogo de las Cosas que los Boticarios han de tener en sus Boticas" (Catalogue of the things that apothecaries must have in their shops), by Andrés Zamudio de Alfaro, Protomédico General (1592-1599)]. / Protomedicato y farmacia en Castilla a finales del siglo XVI: edición crítica del "Catálogo de las Cosas que los Boticarios han de tener en sus Boticas," de Andrés Zamudio de Alfaro, Protomédico General (1592-1599).

In this article we present a catalogue of medicinal products preserved in a manuscript copy among the papers of a druggist who died in Madrid in 1599. This catalogue, whose title expresses its normative character, contains 423 entries and is signed by Andrés Zamudio de Alfaro, Protomédico General of Castile from 1592 until his death in 1599. It was presumably issued by the Real Tribunal del Protomedicato during the last decade of the sixteenth century for the use of the protomédicos and examiners who carried out official visits to apothecaries under the aegis of the Tribunal, in accordance with the royal decrees of 1588 and 1593, and was also distributed among the apothecaries themselves and their suppliers, such as the druggist who possessed the copy edited here. The document offers valuable evidence of the policy of normalization of medical, and specifically pharmaceutical, practice imposed during this period by the State through the Protomedicato.

[Representations of illness in letters addressed to Samuel Hahnemann: gender and historical perspectives]. / Krankheitsdarstellungen in Briefen an Samuel Hahnemann--eine Lektüre aus geschlechtergeschichtlicher Perspektive.

Reading letters depicting perceptions of the body, such as those addressed to the founder of homeopathy, Samuel Hahnemann in the 1830's, is one means to identify how gender influenced the self. Homeopathy produced specific writing situations for the patients. Taking into account the modern concept of privacy, this article demonstrates how patient's letters can express gender hierarchies, namely through different strategies used by patients in order to hide their own distress caused by illness. The expression and representation of experience and discourse are also analysed. In comparing women's and men's writings about their bodies, it is argued that women tend to disclose their knowledge whereas men typically offer names borrowed from different medical discourses in order to describe their illnesses. In short, women refer more often to experience and men to knowledge. One can therefore conclude that the way of representing body perceptions reflects a male or a female self, and suggests distinct constructions of the "nature" of male and female sexes of that time.

[The city of Santos and the expansion of Brazilian public health services in homeopathy]. / A cidade de Santos no roteiro de expansão da homeopatia nos serviços públicos de saúde no Brasil.

In consonance with the principles of comprehensiveness, equity, and universality that underlie Brazil's sanitary reform and creation of its Unified Health System, some municipalities have begun offering homeopathy as a treatment option. The article explores the context in which homeopathic treatment was introduced and gained ground in the city of Santos, São Paulo, down through its incorporation as an alternative in the public healthcare network. Homeopathy was introduced in Santos not only by doctors and pharmacists but also by prescribing mediums from spiritist centers. The request that the municipality's primary-care services offer this alternative was possible thanks to the presence of all these players. The present analysis was based on interviews with the professionals who took part in the process, on technical reports, newspaper articles, and scientific journals, and on a book about the city's first spiritist society.

[Pharmaceutical industry and "New German Medicine" ("Neue Deutsche Heilkunde")]. / Pharmazeutische Industrie und "Neue Deutsche Heilkunde".

THe so-called "New German Medicine", initially propagated in the health policy of the National Socialist Party, promoted greater use of phytotherapeutic and homeopathic drugs by the medical community. In response, the "Reichsfachschaft der pharmazeutischen Industrie e. V." (Association of Pharmaceutical Industry of the Reich") was obliged to pursue a carefully chosen double strategy, given that the members of the Association were both manufacturers of natural remedies and manufacturers of allopathic drugs.However, the fact that I.G. Farben completely ignored the "New German Medicine" suggests that the large chemical-pharmaceutical manufacturers did not take this policy very seriously. The only documents pertaining to increased research in the area of natural remedies stem from the medium-sized manufacturers Knoll and Schering. In the case of both companies it is noteworthy that they worked towards obtaining a scientific foundation for the developed preparates, and that they employed conventional methods of chemical analysis and proof of activity. THe growth of the classical manufacturers of natural remedies, such as the company Willmar Schwabe was, as far as any growth at all could be observed, significantly smaller than had been theoretically postulated. There is no casual relationship between any commercial success during the period in which the Nazis were in power and today's commercial prosperity.Moreover, from the viewpoint of the pharmaceutical industry, the "New German Medicine" seems to have passed its zenith before 1936, when the 4-year plan for war preparation entered into force.

[Prosecution of Mélanie Hahnemann in 1847 at the court of Paris: illegal practise of pharmacy and medicine]. / Le procès de Mélanie Hahnemann en 1847 à Paris, exercice illégal de la pharmacie et de la médecine.

Recently married, the Hahnemanns came to Paris in 1835. The great man, 80, was authorised to practice in France. His wife Mélanie always assisted him in writing prescriptions, and in recruiting patients. When he died in 1843, she was continuing to practise assisted or not by a physician, Deleau or Croserio. A young pharmacist, Charles LeThiére, lived close to her as her adoptive son, grandson of the famous painter Guillaume Guillon-LeThière who was the director of the French Academy of Fine Arts of Rome at the Villa Medici, grandson as well of the Roman pharmacist Giuseppe Meli. Early Charles remained orphan and was educated by Mélanie. In 1844, he obtained his pharmaceutical graduation at the Ecole supérieure de Pharmacie de Paris. In 1847, she was accused of illegal practising of medicine and pharmacy. She claimed that she held the degree of doctor in homeopathy granted to her by the Academy of Pennsylvania. The court condemned her on the medical side considering that she earned money without legal certification in medicine. But as the drugs were prepared by a pharmacist, and delivered free of charge to the patients, no sentence was pronounced against her neither against LeThière. However, the court tempted to object that LeTière did not meet all the legal requirements for practising his pharmaceutical activity, especially aruging that he did not own an open shop of pharmacy, and that he did not declare his activity to the authorities in Paris. This point underline the fact that during the XIXth century the French law (21 germinal An XI- 1803), obliged the starting drug industry to be in dependence of the shops of pharmacy opened to the public, owned by a graduated pharmacist. As defender Mrs. Hahnemann chose the quite known solicitor Chaix d'Estange. Many testimonies came for justifying her capability of medical prescribing from artists, officers, writers and several aristocrats. From abroad came the supports of American doctors, Hempel, Hering and Hull. But the core question motivating her sentence came from the medical lobby acting in Paris led by the professor Orfila. Among the adepts of the homeopathy themselves, raised division and rivalry, but all considering that Mélanie Hahnemann's behavior was criticable. The court fined her for hundred francs that she paid. Then, she kept the circle of her friends and continued in medical counselling.