Prehospital Triage of Acute Stroke Patients During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has broad implications on stroke patient triage. Emergency medical services providers have to ensure timely transfer of patients while minimizing the risk of infectious exposure for themselves, their co-workers, and other patients. This statement paper provides a conceptual framework for acute stroke patient triage and transfer during the COVID-19 pandemic and similar healthcare emergencies in the future.

[Assessment of neurologic prognosis after cardiac arrest. Updated recommendations from the Swedish CPR Council Expert Group]. / Bedömning av neuro­logisk prognos efter hjärtstopp - Uppdaterade rekommendationer från Svenska HLR-rådets expertgrupp.

Assessment of neurologic prognosis after cardiac arrest. Updated recommendations from the Swedish CPR Council Expert Group European Resuscitation Council (ERC) issued updated guidelines for postresuscitation care in 2015. This paper provides updated Swedish recommendations for neurological prognostication of patients remaining unconscious after cardiac arrest (CA). The prognostication should be based on independent methods; clinical and neurophysiological examinations, imaging and biomarkers. It should not be performed earlier than three days after CA and any influence from sedatives must be negligible. Bilateral absence of both corneal and pupillary reflexes and bilaterally absent Somatosensory Evoked N20 Potentials (SSEP) at 72 hours are reliable predictors of poor outcome but the ocular reflexes have limited sensitivity and SSEP has limited availability. Hence, further delay of at least 24 hours and combinations of findings from multiple methods are often needed for reliable prognostication.  If firm evidence of a poor prognosis is lacking four days after CA, further expectation with repeated examinations is recommended.

Functional MRI for Assessment of the Default Mode Network in Acute Brain Injury.

BACKGROUND: Assessment of the default mode network (DMN) using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) may improve assessment of the level of consciousness in chronic brain injury, and therefore, fMRI may also have prognostic value in acute brain injury. However, fMRI is much more challenging in critically ill patients because of cardiovascular vulnerability, intravenous sedation, and artificial ventilation. METHODS: Using resting-state fMRI, we investigated the DMN in a convenience sample of patients with acute brain injury admitted to the intensive care unit. The DMN was classified dichotomously into "normal" and "grossly abnormal." Clinical outcome was assessed at 3 months. RESULTS: Seven patients with acute brain injury (4 females; median age 37 years [range 14-71 years]; 1 traumatic brain injury [TBI]; 6 non-TBI) were investigated by fMRI a median of 15 days after injury (range 5-25 days). Neurological presentation included 2 coma, 1 vegetative state/unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (VS/UWS), 3 minimal conscious state (MCS) minus, and 1 MCS plus. Clinical outcomes at 3 months included 1 death, 1 VS/UWS, 1 MCS plus, and 4 conscious states (CS; 1 modified Rankin Scale 0; 2 mRS 4; 1 mRS 5). Normal DMNs were seen in 4 out of 7 patients (1 MCS plus, 3 CS at follow-up). CONCLUSIONS: It is feasible to assess the DMN by resting-state fMRI in patients with acute brain injury already in the very early period of intensive care unit admission. Although preliminary data, all patients with a preserved DMN regained consciousness levels at follow-up compatible with MCS+ or better.

The Last 10 Days of Patients With Glioblastoma: Assessment of Clinical Signs and Symptoms as well as Treatment.

BACKGROUND: High-grade gliomas are the most frequent primary brain tumors. Despite improvement in diagnostics and treatment, survival is still poor and quality-of-life issues are of major importance. Little is known regarding the clinical signs and symptoms of dying patients with glioblastoma. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate signs and symptoms as well as therapeutic strategies in patients with glioblastoma in the end-of-life phase in order to improve end-of-life care. METHODS: In this prospective single-center study, clinical data were obtained using a standardized protocol. We descriptively analyzed signs, symptoms, and therapeutic strategies on a daily basis. RESULTS: A total of 57 patients, who died due to glioblastoma in a hospital setting, were included. The most frequent signs and symptoms in the last 10 days before death were decrease in level of consciousness (95%), fever (88%), dysphagia (65%), seizures (65%), and headache (33%). Concerning medication, 95% received opioids. There was a high need for nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (77%) and anticonvulsants (75%). Steroids were given to 56%. CONCLUSION: Due to a decrease in level of consciousness and cognitive impairment, assessment of clinical signs and symptoms such as headache at the end of life is difficult. Based on the signs and symptoms in the last days before death in patients with glioblastoma, supportive drug treatment remains challenging. Our study emphasizes the importance of standardized guidelines for end-of-life care in patients with glioblastoma.

Serum biomarkers predict acute symptom burden in children after concussion: a preliminary study.

Pediatric emergency department (ED) visits for concussion have nearly tripled in the past decade. Despite this, there are limited bedside tools available to objectively diagnose injury and prognosticate recovery. Here, we perform a preliminary evaluation of the utility of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in predicting initial and follow-up symptom burden in children and young adults 11-21 years of age, presenting to the ED after concussion. We enrolled 13 children and young adults presenting to the ED within 24 h of concussion, and obtained initial serum samples at that time as well as follow-up samples within 24-72 h of injury. Initial GFAP levels were associated with initial and follow-up symptom burden up to 1 month after injury, whereas follow-up GFAP levels did not correlate with symptom burden. These preliminary data suggest that GFAP may offer an objective measure of injury and recovery after pediatric concussion, potentially offering clinicians a new tool in the management of this common injury.

Outcomes of a nontransfer protocol for mild traumatic brain injury with abnormal head computed tomography in a rural hospital setting.

OBJECTIVE: This study sought to investigate outcomes after a novel nontransfer protocol for mild traumatic brain injuries patients with small intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) in a rural trauma center without neurosurgical capabilities. METHODS: This was a retrospective cohort study. In 2007, a nontransfer protocol was implemented at a Level III Trauma Center. It included adult patients from April 2007 through December 2012 with mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) (Glasgow Coma Scale score 13 to 15) and computed tomography (CT) showing small ICH and no coagulopathy. The following ICHs were allowed: 1) minimal or small traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage, 2) punctuate or minimal superficial cerebral contusion, 3) punctuate or minimal intraparenchymal hemorrhage, or 4) very small subdural hemorrhage (SDH) without mass effect (a very thin smear SDH along the tentorium or falx). CT scans were reviewed by the on-call neurosurgeon at an affiliated Level I Trauma Center, and consensus was obtained on the suitability for nontransfer. RESULTS: A total of 76 patients were included. The median hospital length of stay was 1 day (interquartile range = 1 day). No patient required a neurosurgical intervention or postadmission transfer to a Level I facility. There were no in-hospital deaths, and all patients were discharged with stable head CTs and in good neurologic condition. Two patients were readmitted for nonprotocol-related reasons: 1 acute-on-chronic SDH 6 weeks postdischarge, and 1 visual eye change with normal CT 2 days postdischarge. CONCLUSIONS: Our 6-year study corroborates the low neurosurgical rate reported in the literature for mTBI with small ICH. Nontransfer protocols may lead to a more efficient use of hospital resources while providing safe, effective and economical health care.

Association between hypoglycaemic events and fall-related fractures in Medicare-covered patients with type 2 diabetes.

AIMS: This retrospective observational study examined the association between International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM)-coded outpatient hypoglycaemic events and fall-related fractures in Medicare-covered patients with type 2 diabetes. METHODS: Data were derived from healthcare claims for individuals with employer-sponsored Medicare supplemental insurance. The study period consisted of two consecutive 1-year periods; the baseline period (1 April 2008 to 31 March 2009) and the evaluation period (1 April 2009 to 31 March 2010). Patients selected for study were at least 65 years of age with evidence of type 2 diabetes during the baseline period, as identified using a Healthcare Effectiveness Data and Information Set algorithm or by at least two prescription claims for oral antidiabetic drugs. The baseline period was used to collect information on the patients' demographics and clinical characteristics. The evaluation period was used to identify the presence of hypoglycaemic events and fall-related fractures. Logistic regression was employed to examine the association between hypoglycaemic events and fall-related fractures occurring during the evaluation period, adjusting for patients' demographics and clinical characteristics. RESULTS: Of 361 210 included patients, 16 936 had hypoglycaemic events during the evaluation period. Patients with hypoglycaemic events had 70% higher regression-adjusted odds (hypoglycaemic events odds ratio = 1.70; 95% confidence interval = 1.58-1.83) of fall-related fractures than patients without hypoglycaemic events. Multiple sensitivity analyses also yielded results suggesting increased odds of fall-related fractures in patients with hypoglycaemic events. CONCLUSIONS: ICD-9-CM-coded outpatient hypoglycaemic events were independently associated with an increased risk of fall-related fractures. Further studies of the relationship between hypoglycaemia and the risk of fall-related fractures are warranted.

Synopsis of the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence Guideline for management of transient loss of consciousness.

DESCRIPTION: Transient loss of consciousness (TLoC) is common and often leads to incorrect diagnosis, unnecessary investigation, or inappropriate choice of specialist referral. In August 2010, the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence published a guideline that addressed the initial assessment of and most appropriate specialist referral for persons who have experienced TLoC. The guideline focused on correct diagnosis and relevant specialist referral and did not make treatment recommendations. This synopsis describes the principal recommendations concerning assessment and referral of a patient with TLoC. METHODS: The National Clinical Guideline Centre developed the guidelines by using the standard methodology of the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. A multidisciplinary guideline panel generated review questions, discussed evidence, and formulated recommendations. The panel included a technical team from the National Clinical Guideline Centre, who reviewed and graded all relevant evidence identified from literature searches published in English up to November 2009 and performed health-economic modeling. Both guideline development and final modifications were informed by comments from stakeholders and the public. RECOMMENDATIONS: The panel made clear recommendations regarding the assessment of a person after TLoC, which emphasized the importance of clinical reasoning in diagnosis. Persons with uncomplicated faint, situational syncope, or orthostatic hypotension should receive electrocardiography but do not otherwise require immediate further investigation or specialist referral. Persons with features that suggest epilepsy should be referred for specialist neurologic assessment; brief seizure-like activity was recognized as a common occurrence during syncope that should not be regarded as indicating epilepsy. Persons with a suspected cardiac cause for TLoC or in whom TLoC is unexplained after initial assessment should receive specialist cardiovascular assessment. Guidance was provided on the appropriate choices of cardiovascular investigation, according to the presenting clinical circumstances.

Neurologically intact children with an isolated skull fracture may be safely discharged after brief observation.

PURPOSE: The management of children presenting with an isolated skull fracture (ISF) posttrauma is highly variable. We sought to estimate the risk of neurologic deterioration in children with a Glasgow coma score (GCS) 15 and ISF to reduce unnecessary hospital admissions. METHODS: A retrospective review at a level I pediatric trauma referral center was conducted for patients with ISF on head computed tomography from 2003 to 2008. Patients were excluded for injury greater than 24 hours prior, GCS less than 15, intracranial pathology, significant fracture depression, or complex fractures involving facial bones or skull base. RESULTS: A total of 235 patients were identified with an ISF. The median age was 11 months, with falls accounting for 87% of the injuries. One hundred seventy-seven patients were admitted, and 58 patients were discharged from the emergency department after a period of observation (median, 3.3 hours). Median length of stay for those admitted to the hospital was 18.2 hours. One patient developed vomiting following overnight observation and a repeat computed tomography scan demonstrated a small extra-axial hematoma that required no intervention. The mean total costs for patients discharged from the emergency department were $291 vs $1447 for those admitted for observation (P < .001). CONCLUSION: Patients with a presenting GCS of 15 and an ISF can be safely discharged from the emergency department after a short period of observation if they are asymptomatic and have a reliable social environment. This could result in significant savings by eliminating inpatient costs.

Evaluation of the standardized assessment of concussion in a pediatric emergency department.

OBJECTIVE: The Standardized Assessment of Concussion (SAC) is a validated tool for identifying the effects of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). Previous research focused on sport-related sideline evaluation of adolescents and adults. Our goal was to evaluate performance of the SAC among subjects with and without head injury in a pediatric emergency department (ED). METHODS: This was an observational study of children 6 to 18 years of age who presented to an ED with blunt head injury (case-patients) or minor extremity injury (controls). SAC and graded-symptom-checklist scores were compared. American Academy of Neurology concussion grades, presence of loss of consciousness and posttraumatic amnesia were also compared with SAC and graded-symptom-checklist scores among case-patients. RESULTS: Three hundred forty-eight children were enrolled. SAC scores trended lower (greater cognitive deficits) for case-patients compared with controls but did not reach significance. Graded-symptom-checklist scores were significantly higher among case-patients. Presence of altered mental status magnified this effect. There was no correlation between SAC scores and other indicators of mTBI. There was a positive correlation between graded-symptom-checklist scores and posttraumatic amnesia and American Academy of Neurology concussion grade. CONCLUSIONS: The graded symptom checklist reliably identified mTBI symptoms for all children aged 6 years and older. SAC scores tended to be lower for case-patients compared with controls but did not reach significance. Patients with altered mental status at the time of injury manifest an increased number and severity of symptoms. Additional research into strategies to identify cognitive deficits related to mTBI and classify mTBI severity in children is needed.

Continuous peritransplant assessment of consciousness using bispectral index monitoring for patients with fulminant hepatic failure undergoing urgent liver transplantation.

BACKGROUND: Rapid deterioration of consciousness is a critical situation for patients with fulminant hepatic failure (FHF). Bispectral (BIS) index was derived from electroencephalography parameters, primarily to monitor the depth of unconsciousness. AIM: To assess the usability of peritransplant BIS monitoring in patients with FHF. METHODS: A prospective study using peritransplant BIS monitoring was performed in 26 patients with FHF undergoing urgent liver transplantation (LT). RESULTS: Pre-transplant Child-Pugh score was 12.2 +/- 1.0; model for end-stage liver disease score was 32.4 +/- 4.4; Glasgow coma score (GCS) was 9.9 +/- 1.3; and BIS index was 44.0 +/- 6.7. Pre-transplant sedation significantly decreased BIS index. After LT, all patients having endotracheal intubation recovered consciousness within one to three d and showed progressive increase in BIS index, which appeared slightly earlier and was more evident than the increase in derived GCS score. There was a significant correlation between BIS index and derived GCS scores (r(2) = 0.648). Timing of eye opening to voice was matched with BIS index of 66.3 +/- 10.4 and occurred 12.7 +/- 8.3 h after passing BIS index of 50. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that BIS monitoring is a non-invasive, simple, easy-to-interpret method, which is useful in assessing peritransplant state of consciousness. BIS monitoring may therefore be a useful tool during peritransplant intensive care for patients with FHF showing hepatic encephalopathy.

Transient loss of consciousness 1: causes and impact of misdiagnosis.

Part 1 of this two-part unit outlines the various possible causes of transient loss of consciousness (blackouts), the importance of accurate diagnosis and the impact of misdiagnosis. It also discusses the establishment of specialist clinics in order to help with diagnosis and management.

New method of visual disturbances assessment in pilots during tests in the Polish human centrifuge.

OBJECTIVES: Visual disturbances are commonly accepted criteria for acceleration tolerance assessment. Researchers during centrifuge experiments use them as a safe criterion for cessation of acceleration exposure. Visual disturbances analysis is a non-invasive method of assessing retinal blood flow. Limitation of visual stimuli perception is a measure of physiological state of the experiment participants before hemodynamic changes, which reach a critical level manifested by G-induced loss of consciousness. Detection of these disturbances play an important role during the acceleration tolerance assessment. In this study, an attempt was made to answer the question on how many mistakes or incorrect reactions had to be identified to classify the ability of the pilot to fly on military jets. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A new computer-aided research apparatus of our own design was used to assess visual disturbances, being a criterion of +Gz tolerance. In the center of monitor screen, a line of 3 light points was projected. During the centrifuge test, green lateral lights randomly changed their shapes from circles to squares while central light, being a point of vision fixation, remained unchanged. To assess its efficacy, 14 volunteers participated in the tests with various stimuli exposure. The authors aimed at selecting parameters of stimuli and exposure so that the division of reactions presented in the table would correspond with the score scale appropriate for our goals. RESULTS: Preliminary tests showed that appropriately selected light intensity of the exposed stimuli enables the use of test results to assess the number of erroneous reactions, and consequently the level of pilots' concentration during centrifuge tests. CONCLUSIONS: It has been found that the chosen luminance range of the projected light points is correct as it allows to evaluate the reactions, which should be considered erroneous. Additionally, prolongation of the correct reaction time to the mean value of about 400 ms facilitates better differentiation of results. Proper results evaluation, depending on the number of errors, lack of reactions or prolonged reactions made the assessment easier with computer-aided methods.

Forensic assessment of survived strangulation.

By a retrospective analysis of all survived strangulation cases examined at the Institute of Forensic Medicine of Berne, Switzerland between 1987 and 2002, the authors tried to find out, if findings and symptoms of victims could be related to the fierceness of the assault and the mode of strangulation and if general evaluation criteria could be established on the basis of objective findings. One hundred and thirty-four survived strangulation cases were analysed on the basis of written reports, photographies and schematical sketches. Findings and symptoms reflected the fierceness of the assault in 71% of all cases by displaying a continuum of findings from minor injuries to severe traumatisation. This applied especially for cases of manual strangulation while other modes of strangulation resulted in different constellations of findings. As a result of this study, the authors deem the following classification of three degrees of severity as practical on condition that a complete forensic medical examination was performed upon the surviving victim shortly after the incident of strangulation: Light strangulation, confined to skin abrasions and/or reddening of the skin of the neck. Moderate strangulation, defined as bruising to, and/or bleeding from the neck, and/or damage to deeper soft tissues or the larynx, as exhibited by the symptoms of sore throat, difficulty in swallowing, and hoarseness. Severe, life-threatening strangulation if the victim presents petechial bleedings as a result of venous congestion with or without accompanying loss of consciousness.

Mild traumatic brain injury after traffic collisions: a population-based inception cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To study the incidence and claim closure of traffic-related mild traumatic brain injury and the effect of insurance factors. DESIGN: Population-based, cohort study of mild traumatic brain injury caused by traffic collisions in Saskatchewan, Canada, between July 1, 1994 and December 31, 1995. On January 1, 1995 the insurance law changed from tort to no fault. SUBJECTS: 657 adults, 18 years or older, who hit their head and indicated loss of consciousness or uncertain loss of consciousness and were not hospitalized for more than 2 days. METHODS: Subjects entered the cohort on the injury date and exited on the day the insurance claim closed, or on November 1, 1997, when remaining open claims were censored. All 657 subjects answered a baseline questionnaire, and 479 who did not reopen their claim were included in the follow-up. The relationship between claim closure and health was studied in 225 (47%) of these claimants. RESULTS: The 6-month incidence dropped from 36/100,000 to 27/100,000 after the insurance change. The median time-to-claim closure dropped from 408 days to 233 days. Prolonged claim closure was associated with both injury and insurance-related factors. Claim closure occurred faster when claimants' health improved. CONCLUSIONS: Mild traumatic brain injury incidence and claim closure is affected by both health and insurance-related factors.