Milk Intake and Stroke Mortality in the Japan Collaborative Cohort Study-A Bayesian Survival Analysis.

The aim of this study was to further examine the relationship between milk intake and stroke mortality among the Japanese population. We used data from the Japan Collaborative Cohort (JACC) Study (total number of participants = 110,585, age range: 40-79) to estimate the posterior acceleration factors (AF) as well as the hazard ratios (HR) comparing individuals with different milk intake frequencies against those who never consumed milk at the study baseline. These estimations were computed through a series of Bayesian survival models that employed a Markov Chain Monte Carlo simulation process. In total, 100,000 posterior samples were generated separately through four independent chains after model convergency was confirmed. Posterior probabilites that daily milk consumers had lower hazard or delayed mortality from strokes compared to non-consumers was 99.0% and 78.0% for men and women, respectively. Accordingly, the estimated posterior means of AF and HR for daily milk consumers were 0.88 (95% Credible Interval, CrI: 0.81, 0.96) and 0.80 (95% CrI: 0.69, 0.93) for men and 0.97 (95% CrI: 0.88, 1.10) and 0.95 (95% CrI: 0.80, 1.17) for women. In conclusion, data from the JACC study provided strong evidence that daily milk intake among Japanese men was associated with delayed and lower risk of mortality from stroke especially cerebral infarction.

US toddler milk sales and associations with marketing practices.

OBJECTIVE: Extensive marketing of 'toddler milks' (sugar-sweetened milk-based drinks for toddlers) promotes unsubstantiated product benefits and raises concerns about consumption by young children. The present study documents trends in US toddler milk sales and assesses relationships with brand and category marketing. DESIGN: We report annual US toddler milk and infant formula sales and marketing from 2006 to 2015. Sales response models estimate associations between marketing (television advertising spending, product price, number of retail displays) and volume sales of toddler milks by brand and category. SETTING: US Nielsen retail scanner sales and advertising spending data from 2006 to 2015. PARTICIPANTS: Researchers analysed all Universal Product Codes (n 117·4 million) sold by seven infant formula and eight toddler milk brands from 2006 to 2015. RESULTS: Advertising spending on toddler milks increased fourfold during this 10-year period and volume sales increased 2·6 times. In contrast, advertising spending and volume sales of infant formulas declined. Toddler milk volume sales were positively associated with television advertising and retail displays, and negatively associated with price, at both the brand and category levels. CONCLUSIONS: Aggressive marketing of toddler milks has likely contributed to rapid sales increases in the USA. However, these sugar-sweetened drinks are not recommended for toddler consumption. Health-care providers, professional organizations and public health campaigns should provide clear guidance and educate parents to reduce toddler milk consumption and address misperceptions about their benefits. These findings also support the need to regulate marketing of toddler milks in countries that prohibit infant formula marketing to consumers.

Standard and Specialized Infant Formulas in Europe: Making, Marketing, and Health Outcomes.

Infant formulas are the only suitable substitute for human milk. The most common infant formulas are standard formulas based on cow's milk. In addition, there are formulas for infants showing signs and symptoms of intolerance and for clinical conditions such as allergy, prematurity, and gastrointestinal diseases. A comprehensive review of the literature was made to review the composition of standard and specialized infant formulas and analyze indications for use, real or presumed nutrition differences and properties, and impact on infant growth. A brief consideration on costs is outlined for each formula. Over the past few years, industrial production and advertising of infant formulas have increased. Human milk still remains the most complete source of nutrition for infants and should be continued according to the current recommendations. Few differences exist between infant formulas, both for the nutrition action and the macronutrient/micronutrient composition. Specialized infant formulas have limited indications for use and high costs. The role of the pediatrician is crucial in the management of infant nutrition, promotion of breastfeeding, and prescribing of specialized formulas only in specific clinical conditions.

Environmental and Economic Effects of Changing to Shelf-Stable Dairy or Soy Milk for the Breakfast in the Classroom Program.

OBJECTIVES: To estimate economic and environmental effects of reducing milk waste from the US Breakfast in the Classroom (BIC) School Breakfast Program by replacing conventional milk with shelf-stable dairy or soy milk. METHODS: We estimated net greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE; kg CO2 equivalents [e]) from replacing conventional milk with shelf-stable dairy or soy milk by adapting existing life cycle assessments and US Environmental Protection Agency Waste Reduction Model estimates to BIC parameters. We estimated net cost with school meal purchasing data. RESULTS: Replacing conventional dairy milk with shelf-stable dairy or soy milk would reduce milk-associated GHGE by 28.5% (0.133 kg CO2e) or 79.8% (0.372 kg CO2e) per student per meal, respectively. Nationally, this equates to driving 248 million or 693 million fewer miles annually, respectively. This change would increase milk costs 1.9% ($0.005) or 59.4% ($0.163) per student per meal, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Replacing conventional milk with shelf-stable dairy or soy milk could substantially reduce waste and concomitant GHGE in BIC; switching to shelf-stable dairy has low net costs. Pilot tests of these options are warranted to optimize the nutritional value, cost, and sustainability of BIC.

Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Attitudes and Consumption During the First 1000 Days of Life.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the relationship of parental sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) attitudes with SSB consumption during the first 1000 days of life-gestation to age 2 years. METHODS: We studied 394 Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC)-enrolled families during the first 1000 days of life in northern Manhattan, New York, in 2017. In regression models, we assessed cross-sectional relationships of parental SSB attitude scores with habitual daily parent SSB calories and infant SSB consumption, adjusting for demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. RESULTS: Each point higher parental SSB attitude score was associated with lower parental SSB consumption (-14.5 median kcals; 95% confidence interval [CI] = -22.6, -6.4). For infants, higher parental SSB attitude score was linked with lower odds of infant SSB consumption (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 0.84; 95% CI = 0.71, 0.99), and adjustment for socioeconomic factors slightly attenuated results (AOR = 0.85; 95% CI = 0.71, 1.02). CONCLUSIONS: During the first 1000 days of life, greater negativity in parental attitudes toward SSB consumption was associated with fewer parental calories consumed from SSBs and lower likelihood of infant SSB consumption. Public Health Implications. Parental attitudes toward SSBs should be targeted in future childhood obesity interventions during pregnancy and infancy.

Effect of mixed maize-legume silages on milk quality and quantity from lactating smallholder dairy cows.

The study investigated the effect of the following maize:legume (70:30) mixed crop silages: maize:cowpea, maize:velvet bean, and maize:lablab on milk production during the 2016 dry season. Using a 5 × 5 double Latin square design, five Holstein-Friesian crossbred cows in early lactation (30 ± 15 days) and five Jersey crossbred cows in early lactation (25 ± 10 days) were given the supplementary mixed crop silage diets at 0.5 kg/l of milk produced over 105 days. Commercial dairy meal and sole maize silage were used as positive and negative controls, respectively. Milk yield was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in cows given the dairy meal compared to mixed crop silages; however, milk yield was also significantly higher (P < 0.05) for cows given the three mixed crop silages compared to cows given sole maize silage. Cows given mixed crop silages produced milk of significantly higher protein content (P < 0.05) than those given sole maize silage. There was no significant difference (P > 0.05) in butterfat content of milk across all the dietary treatments. The dietary cost of producing 1 l of milk was highest at 0.31USD/l for cows given commercial dairy meal and lowest for cows given maize:velvet bean and maize:cowpea silage at 0.19USD/kg. The highest dietary gross margins of 68% were observed when cows were given maize:velvet mixed silage compared to commercial dairy meal (47%) and sole maize silage (57%). The 70:30 maize:legume mixed crop silages showed the capability to increase milk quantity and quality at very low production costs in smallholder dairy schemes.

Beverage Intake among Children: Associations with Parent and Home-Related Factors.

Beverage intake can influence child diet quality in a positive or negative manner depending on the beverage type and amounts consumed. Parenting practices such as role modeling and control of home beverage availability have been associated with child beverage intake, whereas examination of the influence of parental beverage nutrition knowledge has been more limited. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between sugar-sweetened and dairy beverage intake among children (9-12 years) and home and parental factors. A questionnaire was administered among a convenience sample of parents (n = 194) to assess beverage nutrition knowledge, beverage intake and home availability of beverages. Children completed a questionnaire to estimate usual beverage intake. Daily sugar-sweetened beverage intake by children ranged from 0.4 to 48 oz. Logistic regression analysis was used to examine relationships. Parents were mostly female, white, well educated, and employed. Home availability of sugar-sweetened and dairy beverages was positively associated with child sugar-sweetened (OR = 1.48, p = 0.03) and dairy beverage intake (OR = 1.34, p = 0.03), respectively. Parent dairy beverage intake was associated with child dairy beverage intake (OR = 1.06, p = 0.01). Parent knowledge about sugar in beverages was related to child dairy beverage intake (OR = 1.46, p = 0.02), whereas calcium/dairy knowledge and general beverage nutrition knowledge were not related to child beverage intake. Parenting practices and knowledge may play a role in determining child beverage intake.

Social support and dairy products intake among adolescents: a study from Iran.

BACKGROUND: Adequate daily milk and dairy products intake seems to an important for adolescents' health. This study aimed to identify the high-risk group adolescents who did not meet the recommended daily serving milk and dairy products and indeed to find out associated factors relating to their nutrition behaviors. METHODS: This cross sectional study was carried out on 7th grade students, in Tabriz, East Azerbaijan province, Iran. An anonymous self-administrated questionnaire including items on perceived social support, physical activity, and sedentary behaviors was administered. In addition a valid food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) measuring daily milk products serving intake as a main outcome measure was completed for each respondent. Logistic regression analysis was applied to examine the association between milk and dairy products consumption and independents variables. RESULTS: In all 402 students (51.5 % female) participated in the study. The mean age of students was 12.9 (SD = 0.49) years. The average daily intake of milk and dairy products was 1.64 (SD = 0.78) servings per day. Overall 14.2 % of adolescents (18.8 % of girls, and 9.2 % of boys, p = 0.006) reported consumption of the recommended daily milk and dairy products serving per day. The results indicated that gender boys (OR for boys = 2.41, 95 % CI = 1.25-4.67), mother age (OR for age group 40-55 years = 2.52, 95 % CI = 1.18-5.38), poor perceived emotional family support, (OR = 1.10, 95 % CI = 1.05-3.61), and poor perceived practical family support (OR = 2.04, 95 % CI = 1.18-4.17) were the most significant contributing factors to low level milk and dairy products intake in adolescents. CONCLUSION: The findings indicated that adolescents did not take the recommended daily amount of milk and dairy products and this appeared to be strongly related to low perceived family support. To achieve the recommended daily milk and dairy products serving consumption, family involvements in any programs that specifically address emotional and practical support for promoting daily milk and dairy products intake among adolescents are suggested.

Exploring the Impact of the New WIC Food Package on Low-Fat Milk Consumption Among WIC Recipients: A Pilot Study.

OBJECTIVE: To examine if the mothers and their eldest child participating in WIC would accept the 2009 new Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) program package and drink more low-fat milk. METHODS: Mothers and their eldest child at two Atlanta WIC clinics were recruited. Data were collected at baseline (before the new WIC package), at one week and four weeks. RESULTS: The percentage of children consuming low-fat milk significantly increased: 41.3% at baseline, 58.8% at week one, and 79.5% at week four (p<.001). After four weeks, the mothers reported increased child's consumption of low-fat milk vs. whole milk (AOR = 7.36; CI: 1.44-37.52). Mothers' consumption of low-fat milk did not significantly change after introduction of the new package. CONCLUSIONS: Policy changes for WIC vouchers were implemented to encourage mothers to reduce fat calories in dairy products for them and their children. This represents a powerful, low-resource intervention to change health behaviors among low-income families.

Effect of management practices and animal age on incidence of mastitis in Nili Ravi buffaloes.

Buffalo is an economically important dairy animal in South Asia but mostly ignored in research priorities. In this retrospective study, the effect of management practices and age of animal on the incidence of mastitis in Nili Ravi buffaloes was investigated. A total of 1,560 quarters of buffaloes (n = 390) were screened by visual examination of the udder and milk (clinical mastitis) and California mastitis test (subclinical mastitis). Household data was collected on a predesigned questionnaire and analyzed. The prevalence of subclinical mastitis, clinical mastitis, and blind quarters was 41.8, 13.6, and 9.7 %, respectively. The highest prevalence was noted in the hind quarters and left side as compared to that in the forequarters and right side. This data significantly (p < 0.05) supported the idea that larger herd size has more chances of mastitis, with the highest prevalence (40, 32, and 27 %) in the large, medium, and small herds, respectively. Stage of lactation was significantly (p < 0.01) involved in mastitis, and the highest incidence (43.3 %) was noted in early lactation. Milk production of lactating buffaloes that ranged 6-10 l/day showed a higher rate of mastitis occurrence (p < 0.05). The cleanliness condition of a farm also contributed significantly. Animal age significantly affected the incidence of mastitis. Results revealed that age of the animal has a positive correlation (R (2) = 0.772) with mastitis. This study concluded that some factors alone or in combination with other factors influence significantly the occurrence of mastitis, and to minimize the infection, these factors should be considered. The outcome of the study will be valuable for policy-making for positive management practices and implementation of preventive measures.

A comparative study of production performance and animal health practices in organic and conventional dairy systems.

Health and production management strategies influence environmental impacts of dairies. The objective of this paper was to measure risk factors on health and production parameters on six organic and conventional bovine, caprine, and ovine dairy herds in southeastern Brazil over six consecutive years (2006-2011). The organic operations had lower milk production per animal (P ≤ 0.05), lower calf mortality (P ≤ 0.05), less incidence of mastitis (P ≤ 0.05), fewer rates of spontaneous abortions (P ≤ 0.05), and reduced ectoparasite loads (P ≤ 0.05) compared to conventional herds and flocks. Organic herds, however, had greater prevalence of internal parasitism (P ≤ 0.05) than conventional herds. In all management systems, calves, kids, and lambs had greater oocyte counts than adults. However, calves in the organic group showed lower prevalence of coccidiosis. In addition, animals in the organic system exhibited lower parasitic resistance to anthelmintics. Herd genetic potential, nutritive value of forage, feed intake, and pasture parasite loads, however, may have influenced productive and health parameters. Thus, although conventional herds showed greater milk production and less disease prevalence, future research might quantify the potential implications of these unreported factors.

Feeding strategies and manure management for cost-effective mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions from dairy farms in Wisconsin.

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from dairy farms are a major concern. Our objectives were to assess the effect of mitigation strategies on GHG emissions and net return to management on 3 distinct farm production systems of Wisconsin. A survey was conducted on 27 conventional farms, 30 grazing farms, and 69 organic farms. The data collected were used to characterize 3 feeding systems scaled to the average farm (85 cows and 127ha). The Integrated Farm System Model was used to simulate the economic and environmental impacts of altering feeding and manure management in those 3 farms. Results showed that incorporation of grazing practices for lactating cows in the conventional farm led to a 27.6% decrease in total GHG emissions [-0.16kg of CO2 equivalents (CO2eq)/kg of energy corrected milk (ECM)] and a 29.3% increase in net return to management (+$7,005/yr) when milk production was assumed constant. For the grazing and organic farms, decreasing the forage-to-concentrate ratio in the diet decreased GHG emissions when milk production was increased by 5 or 10%. The 5% increase in milk production was not sufficient to maintain the net return; however, the 10% increase in milk production increased net return in the organic farm but not on the grazing farm. A 13.7% decrease in GHG emissions (-0.08kg of CO2eq/kg of ECM) was observed on the conventional farm when incorporating manure the day of application and adding a 12-mo covered storage unit. However, those same changes led to a 6.1% (+0.04kg of CO2eq/kg of ECM) and a 6.9% (+0.06kg of CO2eq/kg of ECM) increase in GHG emissions in the grazing and the organic farms, respectively. For the 3 farms, manure management changes led to a decrease in net return to management. Simulation results suggested that the same feeding and manure management mitigation strategies led to different outcomes depending on the farm system, and furthermore, effective mitigation strategies were used to reduce GHG emissions while maintaining profitability within each farm.

Elementary and middle school children's acceptance of lower calorie flavored milk as measured by milk shipment and participation in the National School Lunch Program.

BACKGROUND: The United States Department of Agriculture's (USDA) new nutrition standards for school meals include sweeping changes setting upper limits on calories served and limit milk offerings to low fat or fat-free and, if flavored, only fat-free. Milk processors are lowering the calories in flavored milks. As changes to milk impact school lunch participation and milk consumption, it is important to know the impact of these modifications. METHODS: Elementary and middle schools from 17 public school districts that changed from standard flavored milk (160-180 kcal/8 oz) to lower calorie flavored milk (140-150 kcal/8 oz) between 2008 and 2009 were enrolled. Milk shipment and National School Lunch Program (NSLP) participation rates were collected for 3 time periods over 12 months (pre-reformulation, at the time of reformulation, and after reformulation). Linear mixed models were used with adjustments for free/reduced meal eligibility. RESULTS: No changes were seen in shipment of flavored milk or all milk, including unflavored. The NSLP participation rates dropped when lower calorie flavored milk was first offered, but recovered over time. CONCLUSIONS: While school children appear to accept lower calorie flavored milk, further monitoring is warranted as most of the flavored milks offered were not fat-free as was required by USDA as of fall 2012.

Invited review: Sustainability of the US dairy industry.

The US dairy industry has realized tremendous improvements in efficiencies and milk production since the 1940s. During this time, farm and total cow numbers have decreased and average herd size has increased. This intensification, combined with the shift to a largely urban public, has resulted in increased scrutiny of the dairy industry by social and environmental movements and increased concern regarding the dairy industry's sustainability. In response to these concerns, a group of scientists specializing in animal welfare, nutrient management, greenhouse gas emissions, animal science, agronomy, agricultural engineering, microbiology, and economics undertook a critical review of the US dairy industry. Although the US dairy system was identified as having significant strengths, the consensus was that the current structure of the industry lacks the resilience to adapt to changing social and environmental landscapes. We identified several factors affecting the sustainability of the US dairy industry, including climate change, rapid scientific and technological innovation, globalization, integration of societal values, and multidisciplinary research initiatives. Specific challenges include the westward migration of milk production in the United States (which is at odds with projected reductions in precipitation and associated limitations in water availability for cattle and crops), and the growing divide between industry practices and public perceptions, resulting in less public trust. Addressing these issues will require improved alignment between industry practices and societal values, based upon leadership from within the industry and sustained engagement with other interested participants, including researchers, consumers, and the general public.

Groundwater quality and its health impact: An assessment of dental fluorosis in rural inhabitants of the Main Ethiopian Rift.

This study aims to assess the link between fluoride content in groundwater and its impact on dental health in rural communities of the Ethiopian Rift. A total of 148 water samples were collected from two drainage basins within the Main Ethiopian Rift (MER). In the Ziway-Shala basin in particular, wells had high fluoride levels (mean: 9.4±10.5mg/L; range: 1.1 to 68 mg/L), with 48 of 50 exceeding the WHO drinking water guideline limit of 1.5mg/L. Total average daily intake of fluoride from drinking groundwater (calculated per weight unit) was also found to be six times higher than the No-Observed-Adverse-Effects-Level (NOAEL) value of 0.06 mg/kg/day. The highest fluoride levels were found in highly-alkaline (pH of 7 to 8.9) groundwater characterized by high salinity; high concentrations of sodium (Na⁺), bicarbonate (HCO3⁻), and silica (SiO2); and low concentrations of calcium (Ca²âº). A progressive Ca²âº decrease along the groundwater flow path is associated with an increase of fluoride in the groundwater. The groundwater quality problem is also coupled with the presence of other toxic elements, such as arsenic (As) and uranium (U). The health impact of fluoride was evaluated based on clinical examination of dental fluorosis (DF) among local residents using the Thylstrup and Fejerskov index (TFI). In total, 200 rural inhabitants between the ages of 7 and 40 years old using water from 12 wells of fluoride range of 7.8-18 mg/L were examined. Signs of DF (TF score of ≥ 1) were observed in all individuals. Most of the teeth (52%) recorded TF scores of 5 and 6, followed by TF scores of 3 and 4 (30%), and 8.4% had TF scores of 7 or higher. Sixty percent of the teeth exhibited loss of the outermost enamel. Within the range of fluoride contents, we did not find any correlation between fluoride content and DF. Finally, preliminary data suggest that milk intake has contributed to reducing the severity of DF. The study highlights the apparent positive role of milk on DF, and emphasizes the importance of nutrition in management efforts to mitigate DF in the MER and other parts of the world.

Costs of clinical mastitis with special reference to premature culling.

Bovine mastitis is an economic and a welfare problem on dairy farms. The objective of this study was to estimate the costs of clinical mastitis (CM), having a special focus on the cost variation related to culling decisions. A dynamic optimization model was developed to determine an optimal replacement time of a mastitic cow and to estimate the costs of CM, taking into account the risk of premature culling and the uncertainty in CM prevalence. Six lactations were analyzed at monthly periods for Ayrshire and Holstein-Friesian breeds. The estimates reflect Finnish production conditions where mastitis is treated only by veterinarians. Biological parameters of the model were adapted from the literature and the Finnish dairy herd health recording system. Field data were used to produce the risk parameters of culling due to mastitis on commercial dairy farms. The model recommended treating the cows with CM and keeping them in most cases until their fifth lactation. A cheaper (-20%) heifer transferred the optimum to the previous lactation and a more expensive (+20%) heifer to the following lactation. Conditional on optimal replacements, the average cost of CM of an Ayrshire (Holstein-Friesian costs in parentheses) cow was €485 (€458), varying from €209 (€112) to €1,006 (€946). The costs were at the highest when the occurrence of CM was at a top yield phase. In the scenario where the risk of culling due to mastitis was included in the model, the average cost of CM was €596 (€623). Disposing of a young cow at the end of her first lactation month caused the highest costs. The costs converted to figures per cow-year were €121 (€147) with optimal cullings and €155 (€191) in the current Finnish conditions. Thus, the increase in the costs of CM due to premature cullings was 28% (30%.) The main cost sources were long-term production losses regardless of the culling decisions. Premature culling formed 20% (23%) of the total costs. To decrease the costs of CM, more emphasis should be given to hidden costs, especially the high cost of premature culling should be underlined.

Analysis of the economically optimal voluntary waiting period for first insemination.

The voluntary waiting period (VWP) is defined as the time between parturition and the time at which the cow is first eligible for insemination. Determining the optimal VWP from field data is difficult and unlikely to happen. Therefore, a Monte-Carlo dynamic-stochastic simulation model was created to calculate the economic effects of different VWP. The model is dynamic and uses time steps of 1 wk to simulate the reproductive cycle (ovulation, estrous detection, and conception), the occurrence of postpartum disorders, and the lactation curve. Inputs of the model were chosen to reflect the situation of Dutch dairy cows. In the model, we initially created a cow of a randomly selected breed, parity, month of calving, calf status of last calving, and expected 305-d milk yield. The randomly varied variables were based upon relevant distributions and adjusted for cow statuses. The lactation curve was modeled by Wood's function. The economic input values in the analysis included: cost of milk production (€0.07 to €0.20 per kg), calf price (€35 to €150 per calf), AI cost (€7 to €24 per AI), calving management cost (€137 to €167 per calving), and culling cost, expressed as the retention pay-off (€118 to €1,117). A partial budget approach was used to calculate the economic effect of varying the VWP from 7 to 15 wk postpartum, using a VWP of 6 wk as reference. Per iteration, the VWP with either the lowest economic loss or the maximum profit was determined as the optimal VWP. The optimal VWP of most cows (90%) was less than 10 wk. On average, every VWP longer than 6 wk gave economic losses. Longer VWP were in particular optimal for the first parity of breeds other than Holstein-Friesian, cows calving in winter with low milk production, high milk persistency, delayed peak milk yield time, a delayed time of first ovulation, or occurrence of a postpartum disorder, and while costs of milk production are low and costs for AI are high.

The global food crisis: an Australian dairy industry perspective.

This paper seeks to shed further light on the factors contributing to the emerging global food crisis by examining the reasons for an unusual downturn in dairy food production in Australia, from where 11% of the world trade in dairy foods originates.

Beverage consumption in low income, "milk-friendly" families.

PURPOSE: Beverage consumption by poor, lone mother-led, "milk-friendly" families living in Atlantic Canada was characterized over a one-month income cycle. METHODS: Beverage intake and food security status were assessed weekly, using a 24-hour dietary recall and the Cornell-Radimer food insecurity questionnaire. Families were classified as "milk friendly" if total consumption of milk was 720 mL on a single day during the month. Beverage intake was assessed using t-tests, analysis of variance (ANOVA), repeated measures ANOVA with post hoc comparisons, and chi-square analysis. RESULTS: Milk consumption by milk-friendly families (76; total sample, 129) was highest at the time of the month when they had the most money to spend. During all time intervals, mothers consumed the least amount of milk and children aged one to three years consumed the most. Mothers consumed carbonated beverages disproportionately, while children of all ages consumed more fruit juice/drink. Mothers' coffee consumption was profoundly increased when either they or their children were hungry. CONCLUSIONS: The quality of beverage intake by members of low-income households fluctuates in accordance with financial resources available to purchase foods. Mothers' beverage intake is compromised by the degree of food insecurity the family experiences.

Exploration of lagged relationships between mastitis and milk yield in dairy cows using a Bayesian structural equation Gaussian-threshold model.

A Gaussian-threshold model is described under the general framework of structural equation models for inferring simultaneous and recursive relationships between binary and Gaussian characters, and estimating genetic parameters. Relationships between clinical mastitis (CM) and test-day milk yield (MY) in first-lactation Norwegian Red cows were examined using a recursive Gaussian-threshold model. For comparison, the data were also analyzed using a standard Gaussian-threshold, a multivariate linear model, and a recursive multivariate linear model. The first 180 days of lactation were arbitrarily divided into three periods of equal length, in order to investigate how these relationships evolve in the course of lactation. The recursive model showed negative within-period effects from (liability to) CM to test-day MY in all three lactation periods, and positive between-period effects from test-day MY to (liability to) CM in the following period. Estimates of recursive effects and of genetic parameters were time-dependent. The results suggested unfavorable effects of production on liability to mastitis, and dynamic relationships between mastitis and test-day MY in the course of lactation. Fitting recursive effects had little influence on the estimation of genetic parameters. However, some differences were found in the estimates of heritability, genetic, and residual correlations, using different types of models (Gaussian-threshold vs. multivariate linear).