Assessment of hygiene practices and microbial safety of milk supplied by smallholder farmers to processors in selected counties in Kenya.

Smallholder farmers dominate the Kenyan dairy sector producing 95% of the total milk. However, several concerns have been raised on the quality and safety of the milk they produce. This study assessed the hygienic practices and microbial safety of milk supplied by smallholder farmers to processors in Bomet, Nyeri, and Nakuru counties in Kenya. Interviews and direct observations were carried out to assess hygiene and handling practices by farmers and a total of 92 milk samples were collected along four collection channels: direct suppliers, traders, cooperatives with coolers, and cooperatives without coolers. Microbial analysis was done following standard procedures and data analysed using GenStat and SPSS. This study revealed that farmers did not employ good hygienic practices in their routine dairy management. They used plastic containers for milking and milk storage (34.2%); they did not clean sheds (47.9%) and did not set aside cows that suffered from mastitis factors (83.6%), resulting in poor microbial quality of raw milk along the collection channels. The highest mean total viable counts (8.72 log10 cfu/ml) were recorded in Nakuru while Nyeri had the highest mean E. coli counts (4.97 log10 cfu/ml) and Bomet recorded the highest mean counts of 5.13 and 5.78 log10 cfu/ml for Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes respectively. Based on all above-mentioned parameters, the microbial load in most samples from all three counties exceeded the set Kenyan standards. Farmer training, improving road infrastructure, use of instant coolers at cooperatives, and quality-based payment systems are recommended as measures to curb microbial growth.

Traditional Colonial-type cheese from the south of Brazil: A case to support the new Brazilian laws for artisanal cheese production from raw milk.

Artisanal Colonial-type cheese is made from raw milk and is the main cheese produced by rural families of the southern region of Brazil. The aim of this study was to investigate, identify problems, and propose solutions for the current situation of small family farms producing and informally selling artisanal Colonial-type cheese located in the western part of Santa Catarina State in Southern Brazil. A semistructured questionnaire was employed in 12 rural properties to analyze the mode of production. Physical-chemical and microbiological analyses of water, raw milk, and cheese were performed, and it was found that 92, 50, and 100% of the samples, respectively, were outside of the current Brazilian regulatory parameters. None of the cheesemakers involved in this study met the requirements, as established by law, for artisanal cheese production from raw milk. This study concluded that technical support and changes in public policy are needed to ensure the preservation of this artisanal cheese, considering the historical importance and cultural traditions of these local communities and the socioeconomic importance of cheesemaking to family farming. Furthermore, more research on the safety of the cheese produced from raw milk is needed as well as the development of specific microbiological standards for artisanal Brazilian cheeses. Public policies aimed at guaranteeing food safety that formalize the commercialization of these cheeses will increase food security in those communities that currently produce artisanal cheese informally.

Review: extended lactation in dairy cattle.

This paper reviews the effects of extended lactation (EXT) as a strategy in dairy cattle on milk production and persistency, reproduction, milk quality, lifetime performance of the cow and finally the economic effects on herd and farm levels as well as the impact on emission of greenhouse gas at product level. Primiparous cows are able to produce equal or more milk per feeding day during EXT compared with a standard 305-d lactation, whereas results for multiparous cows are inconsistent. Cows managed for EXT can achieve a higher lifetime production while delivering milk with unchanged or improved quality properties. Delaying insemination enhances mounting behaviour and allows insemination after the cow's energy balance has become positive. However, in most cases EXT has no effect or a non-significant positive effect on reproduction. The EXT strategy sets off a cascade of effects at herd and farm level. Thus, the EXT strategy leads to fewer calvings and thereby expected fewer diseases, fewer replacement heifers and fewer dry days per cow per year. The optimal lifetime scenario for milk production was modelled to be an EXT of 16 months for first parity cows followed by an EXT of 10 months for later lactations. Modelling studies of herd dynamics indicate a positive effect of EXT on lifetime efficiency (milk per dry matter intake), mainly originating from benefits of EXT on daily milk yield in primiparous cows and the reduced number of replacement heifers. Consequently, EXT also leads to reduced total meat production at herd level. For the farmer, EXT can give the same economic return as a traditional lactation period. At farm level, EXT can contribute to a reduction in the environmental impact of dairy production, mainly as a consequence of the reduced production of beef. A wider dissemination of the EXT concept will be supported by methods to predict which cows may be most suitable for EXT, and clarification of how milking frequency and feeding strategy through the lactation can be organised to support milk yield and an appropriate body condition at the next calving.

A Comparative Study of the Role of Australia and New Zealand in Sustainable Dairy Competition in the Chinese Market after the Dairy Safety Scandals.

After the melamine milk scandal in 2008, China's global imports of dairy products soared, especially after FTAs had been established with Australia and New Zealand. The dairy products of the two countries have a unique competitive trading advantage in the Chinese market. However, at a time when Chinese consumers are increasingly dependent on imported dairy products, a succession of whey protein scandals affecting New Zealand's dairy products in 2013 had a negative psychological impact on Chinese importers and consumers, and this even affected the import status of New Zealand dairy imports to the Chinese market. The present paper, based on the United Nations Comtrade Harmonized System, studies the role of Australia and New Zealand in China's dairy market. It calculates the trade competitiveness index, revealing the relative competitive advantages of Australia and New Zealand, and investigates the impact of the dairy products from these countries on China's imports from the rest of the world across six dairy sectors in the period 1992⁻2017. We find that, under the food safety laws, the relative dairy import prices, milk scandals, and Free Trade Agreements, together with the competitive advantages of Australia and New Zealand, had a varied impact on the corresponding Chinese dairy imports across the relevant sectors in the context of China food safety laws after the melamine milk scandal. These findings acknowledge Australia and New Zealand's competitiveness in the international dairy trade, and also lead to suggestions regarding their competitiveness and sustainable development in the Chinese market.

Defining health standards through economic optimisation: The example of colostrum management in beef and dairy production.

There is extensive literature addressing acceptable practices of colostrum distribution to new-born calves; however, no economic analyses are available concerning the profitability of this practice. Moreover, the health standards associated with colostrum management have been defined through the observation of reference farms without explicit reference to economic assessments. The objective of the current study was to evaluate the profitability of farm colostrum management and to define the optimal economic situations for given livestock systems and farm situations. The herd-level net value was calculated using the value of calf products, the cost of passive transfer failure and the cost of prevention. This value was determined for various beef and dairy scenarios and the various time periods spent managing colostrum. The maximal net values defined the optimal economic situations and enabled the determination of the optimal times for colostrum management and respective health standards (i.e., the prevalence of disorders at optimum). The results showed that the optimal time farmers should spend on colostrum management is approximately 15 min per calf. Furthermore, farmers should err on the side of spending too much time (> 15 min) on colostrum management rather than not enough, unless the cost of labour is high. This is all the more true that potential long term consequences of passive transfer failure on milk yields were not accounted for here due to scarcity of data, leading to consider this time threshold (15 min) as a minimal recommendation. This potential underestimation may arise from the greater nutrient content and bioactive compounds identified in colostrum although the passive immune transfer is here defined through immunoglobulins only. The present results show that for small farms that cannot hire colostrum managers, this work can be performed by the farmer after subcontracting other tasks. Moreover, the method proposed here-the definition of health standards through economic optimisation-is a promising approach to analysing health conventions in the cattle industry.

Aflatoxin M1 in fresh milk collected from local markets of Karachi, Pakistan.

During 2016-2017, 156 samples of fresh milk samples were collected from local markets of Karachi, Pakistan and analysed for aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) contamination using ELISA technique. AFM1 was detected in 143 (91.7%) samples, ranged from 20 to 3090 ng L-1 with a mean level of 346.2 ng L-1. In 125 (80.1%) samples, the AFM1 contamination was greater than the maximum limit (ML = 50 ng L-1) set by EU. However, in 51 (32.7%) samples, the AFM1 level was higher than the ML of 500 ng L-1 as assigned by the USA. Statistical analysis showed that the AFM1 level in milk samples from summer was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than that obtained in winter. It was concluded that the AFM1 levels in the tested samples appear to be a serious public health problem. Therefore, immediate measures should be taken and re-evaluation done for the procedures for farming, transportation, refrigeration, and storage for the control of AFM1 level in milk samples.

Public health regulation and mortality: Evidence from early 20th century milk laws.

In this paper, I estimate the impact of city-level public health regulations in the market for cow's milk on the mortality of infants and young children between 1900 and 1920. I find that the introduction of city-level dairy farm inspections reduced mortality from Diarrhea & Enteritis for one-year-old children by 1.3 annual deaths per thousand, a 14 percent effect relative to the baseline rate for this cause and a 3 percent effect relative to the baseline rate for all causes for this age group. Back-of-the-envelope calculations reveal that the benefits from these regulations exceeded costs by at least a factor of two.

Rapid capillary electrophoresis approach for the quantification of ewe milk adulteration with cow milk.

The substitution of ewe milk with more economic cow milk is a common fraud. Here we present a capillary electrophoresis method for the quantification of ewe milk in ovine/bovine milk mixtures, which allows for the rapid and inexpensive recognition of ewe milk adulteration with cow milk. We utilized a routine CE method for human blood and urine proteins analysis, which fulfilled the separation of skimmed milk proteins in alkaline buffer. Under this condition, ovine and bovine milk exhibited a recognizable and distinct CE protein profiles, with a specific ewe peak showing a reproducible migration zone in ovine/bovine mixtures. Based on ewe specific CE peak, we developed a method for ewe milk quantification in ovine/bovine skimmed milk mixtures, which showed good linearity, precision and accuracy, and a minimum amount of detectable fraudulent cow milk equal to 5%.

Milk production, quality, and consumption in Jimma (Ethiopia): Facts and producers', retailers', and consumers' perspectives.

Four studies were performed to quantify milk production, quality and consumption in the town Jimma, Ethiopia. First, 47 dairy farmers and 44 milk retailers were interviewed to gain more insights in dairy farming and marketing, and associated constraints. Second, bulk milk samples (n=188) were collected for 4 consecutive weeks to investigate milk quality [Total Bacterial Counts (TBC), Coliform Counts (CC), Somatic Cell Counts (SCC), and antimicrobial residues]. Third, (bulk) milk samples from 32 farms, 46 milk retailers and the 3 local milk collection centers were collected to determine the presence of oxacillin susceptible-and oxacillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Fourth, 208 adult inhabitants were interviewed to gain more insight in milk consumption and associated concerns of consumers. The average dairy farm included in the studies consisted of 5 lactating cows, produced 43 liters of milk per day and was owned by male, literate adults. Milk was sold to retailers (71% of the production) and directly to customers (25%) without any quality control, whereas 4% was self-consumed. Shortage of animal nutrition and adulteration of the milk were the main constraints for farmers and retailers, respectively. The median TBC, CC and SCC were 122,500CFU/mL, 1,005CFU/mL and 609,500cells/mL, respectively. Antimicrobial residues were detected in 20% of all samples. In general, the milk quality was considered to be poor (TBC>10,000CFU/mL, and/or CC>100CFU/mL, and/or SCC>400,000cells/mL and/or presence of antimicrobial residues) in 97% of all samples. S. aureus was isolated from 12 (38%), 13 (33%), and 2 out of 3 of the milk samples originating from the dairy farms, the milk retailers, and the milk collection centers, respectively. Seven (26%) of the isolates were resistant to oxacillin suggesting the presence of MRSA (Lee, 2003). Local milk is occasionally consumed by adults but more frequently by children. Adults mainly drink spontaneously fermented milk (57% of 105 interviewees consuming local milk) whereas most milk for children is boiled (86% of 110 households with children consuming local milk). Most consumers are concerned about adulteration and milk borne diseases but not about antimicrobial residues. Educated consumers (secondary school or higher) were more likely to boil milk for own consumption, to be concerned about antimicrobial residues in milk, to be concerned about milk borne diseases and to be willing to pay more for milk with proven good quality compared to poorly educated consumers. We conclude that milk quality incentives should be introduced in Jimma, and investments should be made in knowledge transfer, training, milk collection systems and a central milk quality lab.

Imagining the ideal dairy farm.

Practices in agriculture can have negative effects on the environment, rural communities, food safety, and animal welfare. Although disagreements are possible about specific issues and potential solutions, it is widely recognized that public input is needed in the development of socially sustainable agriculture systems. The aim of this study was to assess the views of people not affiliated with the dairy industry on what they perceived to be the ideal dairy farm and their associated reasons. Through an online survey, participants were invited to respond to the following open-ended question: "What do you consider to be an ideal dairy farm and why are these characteristics important to you?" Although participants referenced social, economic, and ecological aspects of dairy farming, animal welfare was the primary issue raised. Concern was expressed directly about the quality of life for the animals, and the indirect effect of animal welfare on milk quality. Thus participants appeared to hold an ethic for dairy farming that included concern for the animal, as well as economic, social, and environmental aspects of the dairy system.

New School Meal Regulations and Consumption of Flavored Milk in Ten US Elementary Schools, 2010 and 2013.

Milk is a source of shortfall nutrients in children's diets, but most children do not consume recommended amounts. We measured consumption of milk by elementary-schoolchildren (grades 3-5) in a diverse sample of schools before and after implementation of the US Department of Agriculture's updated meal regulations requiring flavored milk to be fat-free. Flavored milk consumption did not change from 2010 to 2013; 52.2% of students in 2010 and 49.7% in 2013 consumed 7 ounces or more of an 8-ounce container. Updated regulations succeeded in lowering the amount of fat, added sugars, and calories in school milk but did not change overall milk consumption, thus improving children's diet quality.

Policy improves what beverages are served to young children in child care.

BACKGROUND: During 2008, we conducted a statewide survey on beverages served to preschool-aged children in California child care that identified a need for beverage policy. During 2011, the US Department of Agriculture began requiring that sites participating in the Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP) make drinking water available throughout the day and serve only low-fat or nonfat milk to children aged 2 years and older. During 2012, the California Healthy Beverages in Childcare law additionally required that all child-care sites eliminate all beverages with added sweetener and limit 100% juice to once daily. DESIGN: To assess potential policy effects, we repeated the statewide survey in 2012. During 2008 and 2012, a cross-sectional sample of ∼1,400 licensed child-care sites was randomly selected after stratifying by category (ie, Head Start, state preschool, other CACFP center, non-CACFP center, CACFP home, and non-CACFP home). RESULTS: Responses were obtained from 429 sites in 2008 and 435 in 2012. After adjustment for child-care category, significant improvements in 2012 compared with 2008 were found; more sites served water with meals/snacks (47% vs 28%; P=0.008) and made water available indoors for children to self-serve (77% vs 69%; P=0.001), and fewer sites served whole milk usually (9% vs 22%; P=0.006) and 100% juice more than once daily (20% vs 27%; P=0.038). During 2012, 60% of sites were aware of beverage policies and 23% were judged fully compliant with the California law. CONCLUSIONS: A positive effect occurred on beverages served after enactment of state and federal policies. Efforts should continue to promote beverage policies and support their implementation.

Invited review: organic and conventionally produced milk-an evaluation of factors influencing milk composition.

Consumer perception of organic cow milk is associated with the assumption that organic milk differs from conventionally produced milk. The value associated with this difference justifies the premium retail price for organic milk. It includes the perceptions that organic dairy farming is kinder to the environment, animals, and people; that organic milk products are produced without the use of antibiotics, added hormones, synthetic chemicals, and genetic modification; and that they may have potential benefits for human health. Controlled studies investigating whether differences exist between organic and conventionally produced milk have so far been largely equivocal due principally to the complexity of the research question and the number of factors that can influence milk composition. A main complication is that farming practices and their effects differ depending on country, region, year, and season between and within organic and conventional systems. Factors influencing milk composition (e.g., diet, breed, and stage of lactation) have been studied individually, whereas interactions between multiple factors have been largely ignored. Studies that fail to consider that factors other than the farming system (organic vs. conventional) could have caused or contributed to the reported differences in milk composition make it impossible to determine whether a system-related difference exists between organic and conventional milk. Milk fatty acid composition has been a central research area when comparing organic and conventional milk largely because the milk fatty acid profile responds rapidly and is very sensitive to changes in diet. Consequently, the effect of farming practices (high input vs. low input) rather than farming system (organic vs. conventional) determines milk fatty acid profile, and similar results are seen between low-input organic and low-input conventional milks. This confounds our ability to develop an analytical method to distinguish organic from conventionally produced milk and provide product verification. Lack of research on interactions between several influential factors and differences in trial complexity and consistency between studies (e.g., sampling period, sample size, reporting of experimental conditions) complicate data interpretation and prevent us from making unequivocal conclusions. The first part of this review provides a detailed summary of individual factors known to influence milk composition. The second part presents an overview of studies that have compared organic and conventional milk and discusses their findings within the framework of the various factors presented in part one.

A novel multiplexed fluorescence polarisation immunoassay based on a recombinant bi-specific single-chain diabody for simultaneous detection of fluoroquinolones and sulfonamides in milk.

Major research efforts are focusing on the development of simultaneous multiplexed immunoassays. In this study, a novel dual-binding fluorescence polarisation immunoassay (DB-FPIA) using a broad-specificity bi-specific single-chain diabody (scDb) and two fluorescent-labelled tracers (sulfamethoxypyridazine-fluorescein isothiocyanate (SMP-FITC) and sarafloxacin-Texas Red (SAR-TR)) with different excitation and emission wavelengths was developed for simultaneous and high-throughput detection of 19 fluoroquinolones (FQs) and 13 sulfonamides (SAs) at the maximum residue limits in milk samples. Recoveries for spiked milk samples were from 76.4% to 128.4%, with a relative standard deviation lower than 13.9%. The developed DB-FPIA was then applied to field samples, followed by confirmation by LC-MS/MS. All three instances in which FQs and SAs were present at concentrations near or above the assay limit of detection were identified as positive by the developed DB-FPIA, demonstrating that the method is suitable for rapid screening of FQs and SAs contamination. The novel methodology combines the advantage of the FPIA and the broad sensitivity of scDb and shows great promise for fast multi-analyte screening of low-molecular weight chemical residues in food samples.

Escolaridade e volume de produção têm associação com a percepção de risco de produtores de leite no uso de produtos veterinários / Schooling and volume of production have association with the risk perception of milk producers in the use of veterinary products

O presente estudo teve por objetivo avaliar a correspondência entre fatores socioeconômicos de 171 produtores de leite (escolaridade, volume de produção diária e tempo na atividade) de 96 municípios do Estado de São Paulo, e a percepção de risco no uso de produtos veterinários, por meio de entrevista individual e da análise de correspondência múltipla. Produtores com grau de escolaridade fundamental tendem a ordenhar animais tratados com carrapaticidas, não descartar o leite de vacas em tratamento para mastite, não receber bonificação por qualidade e não usar EPIs. Já produtores com grau de instrução superior tendem a declarar que descartam o leite de vacas em tratamento para a mastite, a receber bonificação por qualidade, a participar de treinamento e a usar EPIs. Produtores com menos de 50 litros de leite diários tendem a declarar que não observam o período de carência dos produtos veterinários e são os que mais responderam incorretamente o período de carência de dois produtos empregados na propriedade, vermifugam animais em lactação e não recebem bonificação por qualidade. Produtores com mais de 500 litros de leite diários tendem a declarar que observam o período de carência dos produtos veterinários, tendem a responder corretamente o período de carência de dois produtos, a receber bonificação por qualidade, a participar de treinamento e a usar EPIs. Foi possível evidenciar que dentro das variáveis selecionadas há categorias ou grupos de produtores de leite para os quais o perigo sanitário é mais visível e outros para os quais o perigo é menos visível. Nesse contexto, é necessário e urgente a execução de programas sanitários contemporâneos nas unidades rurais de produção de leite, a atualização dos serviços de assistência técnica e extensão rural (pública e privada), com enfoque distinto e complementar ao atual e o desenvolvimento de ações efetivas de educação sanitária.

The present study aimed to evaluate the correspondence between socioeconomic factors of 171 milk producers (schooling, daily production volume and time in activity), of 96 counties in the state of São Paulo, and the risk perception in the use of veterinary products through individual interview and multiple correspondence analysis. Producers with low schooling tend to milk animals treated with acaricides, not to discard the milk of cows treated for mastitis, to receive no bonus for the quality of milk and not to use personal protective equipment (PPE). In contrast, producers with higher education tend to declare that they discard milk from cows treated for mastitis, to receive bonus for milk quality, to participate in training and use PPE. Producers with less than 50 liters of milk per day tend to declare that they do not observe the lack period of veterinary products, and when mentioned the lack period of two products more incorrectly answered, use vermifuge in lactating animals and do not receive bonus for milk quality. Producers with more than 500 liters of milk per day tend to declare they observe the lack period of veterinary products, to answer correctly the lack period of two products, to receive bonus for quality, to participate in training and to use PPE. It was possible to evidence that within the selected variables there are categories or groups of milk producers for whom the sanitary hazard is more visible and others for whom the hazard is less visible. In this context, it is necessary and urgent the execution of contemporary sanitary programs in rural units of milk production, the update of services of technical assistance and rural extension (public and private), with different approach and complementary to the currentand the development of effective sanitary education actions.

Effect of management practices and animal age on incidence of mastitis in Nili Ravi buffaloes.

Buffalo is an economically important dairy animal in South Asia but mostly ignored in research priorities. In this retrospective study, the effect of management practices and age of animal on the incidence of mastitis in Nili Ravi buffaloes was investigated. A total of 1,560 quarters of buffaloes (n = 390) were screened by visual examination of the udder and milk (clinical mastitis) and California mastitis test (subclinical mastitis). Household data was collected on a predesigned questionnaire and analyzed. The prevalence of subclinical mastitis, clinical mastitis, and blind quarters was 41.8, 13.6, and 9.7 %, respectively. The highest prevalence was noted in the hind quarters and left side as compared to that in the forequarters and right side. This data significantly (p < 0.05) supported the idea that larger herd size has more chances of mastitis, with the highest prevalence (40, 32, and 27 %) in the large, medium, and small herds, respectively. Stage of lactation was significantly (p < 0.01) involved in mastitis, and the highest incidence (43.3 %) was noted in early lactation. Milk production of lactating buffaloes that ranged 6-10 l/day showed a higher rate of mastitis occurrence (p < 0.05). The cleanliness condition of a farm also contributed significantly. Animal age significantly affected the incidence of mastitis. Results revealed that age of the animal has a positive correlation (R (2) = 0.772) with mastitis. This study concluded that some factors alone or in combination with other factors influence significantly the occurrence of mastitis, and to minimize the infection, these factors should be considered. The outcome of the study will be valuable for policy-making for positive management practices and implementation of preventive measures.

Changes in food and beverage environments after an urban corner store intervention.

OBJECTIVE: In response to the obesity epidemic, interventions to improve the food environment in corner stores have gained attention. This study evaluated the availability, quality, and price of foods in Philadelphia corner stores before and after a healthy corner store intervention with two levels of intervention intensity ("basic" and "conversion"). METHODS: Observational measures of the food environment were completed in 2011 and again in 2012 in corner stores participating in the intervention, using the Nutrition Environment Measures Survey for Corner Stores (NEMS-CS). Main analyses included the 211 stores evaluated at both time-points. A time-by-treatment interaction analysis was used to evaluate the changes in NEMS-CS scores by intervention level over time. RESULTS: Availability of fresh fruit increased significantly in conversion stores over time. Specifically, there were significant increases in the availability of apples, oranges, grapes, and broccoli in conversion stores over time. Conversion stores showed a trend toward a significantly larger increase in the availability score compared to basic stores over time. CONCLUSION: Interventions aimed at increasing healthy food availability are associated with improvements in the availability of low-fat milk, fruits, and some vegetables, especially when infrastructure changes, such as refrigeration and shelving enhancements, are offered.

Microbiological quality and safety assessment of the Rwandan milk and dairy chain.

Milk is a valuable and nutritious food product that can partially fulfill the rising food demand of the growing African population. The microbiological status of milk and derived products was assessed throughout the milk and dairy chain in Rwanda by enumeration of the total mesophilic count, coliforms, and Staphylococcus aureus and detection of Salmonella and Listeria monocytogenes. The quality of raw milk was satisfactory for the majority of samples, but 5.2% contained Salmonella. At the processing level, the total mesophilic count and coliform numbers indicated ineffective heat treatment during pasteurization or postpasteurization contamination. Increasing bacterial counts were observed along the retail chain and could be attributed to insufficient temperature control during storage. Milk and dairy products sold in milk shops were of poor and variable microbiological quality in comparison with the pasteurized milk sold in supermarkets. In particular, the microbiological load and pathogen prevalence in cheese were unacceptably high.

Structural and functional characteristics of bovine milk protein glycosylation.

Most secreted and cell membrane proteins in mammals are glycosylated. Many of these glycoproteins are also prevalent in milk and play key roles in the biomodulatory properties of milk and ultimately in determining milk's nutritional quality. Although a significant amount of information exists on the types and roles of free oligosaccharides in milk, very little is known about the glycans associated with milk glycoproteins, in particular, the biological properties that are linked to their presence. The main glycoproteins found in bovine milk are lactoferrin, the immunoglobulins, glycomacropeptide, a glycopeptide derived from κ-casein, and the glycoproteins of the milk fat globule membrane. Here, we review the glycoproteins present in bovine milk, the information currently available on their glycosylation and the biological significance of their oligosaccharide chains.