Acceptability--a neglected dimension of access to health care: findings from a study on childhood convulsions in rural Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Acceptability is a poorly conceptualized dimension of access to health care. Using a study on childhood convulsion in rural Tanzania, we examined social acceptability from a user perspective. The study design is based on the premise that a match between health providers' and clients' understanding of disease is an important dimension of social acceptability, especially in trans-cultural communication, for example if childhood convulsions are not linked with malaria and local treatment practices are mostly preferred. The study was linked to health interventions with the objective of bridging the gap between local and biomedical understanding of convulsions. METHODS: The study combined classical ethnography with the cultural epidemiology approach using EMIC (Explanatory Model Interview Catalogue) tool. EMIC interviews were conducted in a 2007/08 convulsion study (n = 88) and results were compared with those of an earlier 2004/06 convulsion study (n = 135). Earlier studies on convulsion in the area were also examined to explore longer-term changes in treatment practices. RESULTS: The match between local and biomedical understanding of convulsions was already high in the 2004/06 study. Specific improvements were noted in form of (1) 46% point increase among those who reported use of mosquito nets to prevent convulsion (2) 13% point decrease among caregivers who associated convulsion with 'evil eye and sorcery', 3) 14% point increase in prompt use of health facility and 4)16% point decrease among those who did not use health facility at all. Such changes can be partly attributed to interventions which explicitly aimed at increasing the match between local and biomedical understanding of malaria. Caregivers, mostly mothers, did not seek advice on where to take an ill child. This indicates that treatment at health facility has become socially acceptable for severe febrile with convulsion. CONCLUSION: As an important dimension of access to health care 'social acceptability' seems relevant in studying illnesses that are perceived not to belong to the biomedical field, specifically in trans-cultural societies. Understanding the match between local and biomedical understanding of disease is fundamental to ensure acceptability of health care services, successful control and management of health problems. Our study noted some positive changes in community knowledge and management of convulsion episodes, changes which might be accredited to extensive health education campaigns in the study area. On the other hand it is difficult to make inference out of the findings as a result of small sample size involved. In return, it is clear that well ingrained traditional beliefs can be modified with communication campaigns, provided that this change resonates with the beneficiaries.

Social and cultural aspects of 'malaria' and its control in central Côte d'Ivoire.

BACKGROUND: A sound local understanding of preventive measures and health-seeking behaviour is important for the effective control of malaria. The purpose of this study was to assess the knowledge, attitudes, practices and beliefs of 'malaria' and its control in two rural communities of central Côte d'Ivoire, and to examine associations between 'malaria' and the households' socioeconomic status. METHODS: A cross-sectional household survey was carried out, using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods. People's socioeconomic status was estimated, employing a household asset-based approach. RESULTS: Malaria was identified as djèkouadjo, the local folk name of the disease. Although people were aware of malaria-related symptoms and their association with mosquitoes, folk perceptions were common. In terms of treatment, a wide array of modern and traditional remedies was employed, often in combination. Individuals with a sound knowledge of the causes and symptoms of malaria continued to use traditional treatments and only a few people sleep under bed nets, whereas folk beliefs did not necessarily translate into refusal of modern treatments. Perceived causes of malaria were linked to the household's socioeconomic status with wealthier individuals reporting mosquitoes more frequently than poorer households. Bed nets were more frequently used in wealthier social strata, whereas other protective measures--perceived to be cheaper--were more prominent among the poorest. CONCLUSION: Equitable access to resources at household, community and health system levels are essential in order to enable community members to prevent and treat malaria. There is a need for community-based approaches that match health care services with poor people's needs and resources.

[Management of severe malaria in children in developing countries. A protocol for economic evaluation]. / Prise en charge du paludisme grave de l'enfant dans un pays en développement. Elaboration d'un protocole d'évaluation médico-économique.

This prospective one-year study was conducted as a preliminary phase to setting up a protocol for economic appraisal of management of severe malaria at Albert Royer Children's Hospital in Dakar, Senegal. Data was routinely collected using a standardized checklist. The four key indicators chosen for this study were nurse workload, adequacy of care (number of patients receiving adequate care), direct cost, and mortality rate. The mean daily care workload was estimated to be 27.2 minutes. This indicator assesses the relationship between supply and demand. Based on 5 criteria, care was considered as adequate in 54.5 p. 100 of patients. This indicator is helpful in judging the effectiveness of the therapeutic modalities used. The direct cost of treating severe malaria was estimated to be 45963 CFA francs. This indicator will be useful in establishing controls to reduce costs. The mortality rate was 12.2 p. 100. Comparison of this rate with previous years suggests little improvement in the outcome of malaria management at the institution. This indicator must be taken into account in the ongoing quality control program. Overall these findings should enable institutional decision-making to improve management of severe malaria based on objective measurable data.

Malária grave por P.falciparum. Avaliaçäo das falhas no diagnóstico e na conduta terapêutica em pacientes antes de sua internaçäo em Hospital de Referência / Severe P. falciparum Malaria. Assessment of the failures in diagnosis and therapeutic conducts in patients, before being hospitalized

Falhas no diagónstico e na conduta terapêutica antes da internaçäo foram analisadas em relaçäo a letalidade em 102 pacientes portadores da forma grave da Malária por P. falciparum, segundo critérios da OMS (1990). Diagnóstico coreto foi observado em 62 (60.8) (pôr cento) pacientes, com letalidade de 17.7 (pôr cento) e incorreto em 40 (39.3) (pôr cento), com letalidade de 40(pôr cento) (p=0.01). Conduta terapêutica apropriada foi observada em 21/62 pacientes (33.9) (pôr cento), com letalidade de 9.5 (pôr cento) e inapropriada em 41/62 (66.1) (pôr cento), com letalidade de 21.9(pôr cento) e inapropriada (p> 0.05). Nos pacientes com até 4 dias de doença a letalidade foi de 5.0(pôr cento), nos com 5 a 7 dias, 25.8(pôr cento)e com mais de 7 dias 35.3(pôr cento) (p< 0.05). Os diagnóstico incorretos mais freqüentes foram: Hepatite 30(pôr cento), Infeçäo do trato urinário 25(pôr cento), Malària por P. vivax e febre amarela 15(pôr cento) e Septicemia 7.5(pôr cento). A letalidade foi significativamente maior (p=0.01) naqueles com diagnóstico incorreto e com mais de 4 dias de doença. Os dados mostram um elevado índice de erro no diagnóstico e na conduta terapêutica especíifica na Malária Grave, bem como suas consequências deletérias para os pacientes

Observations on malaria patients seeking treatment in hospitals in a rural and an urban area of Sri Lanka.

Malaria in Sri Lanka is endemic in the dry zone and occurs during epidemics in the wet zone. A survey was carried out on malaria patients presenting at a hospital located in a predominantly rural area in the dry zone (Polonnaruwa) and an urban area in the wet zone (Ragama). Higher incidence of Plasmodium falciparum infections than reported nationally were observed in both locations. Of particular interest is the rapidity with which patients gained access to hospital treatment after the onset of malaria symptoms. The observed mode is 3-6 days. It is postulated that early treatment may impair the development of clinical immunity to malaria in the Sri Lankan population.