Assessment of toxicity and biochemical mechanisms underlying the insecticidal activity of chemically characterized Boswellia carterii essential oil against insect pest of legume seeds.

The present study was undertaken to investigate the insecticidal activity of chemically characterized Boswellia carterii essential oil (EO) and its mode of action against the pulse beetle Callosobruchus chinensis and C. maculatus. GC-MS analysis depicted α-thujene (69.16%), α-Pinene (7.20) and α-Phellandrene (6.78%) as the major components of test EO. EO exhibited absolute toxicity at 0.10µl/ml air against both C. chinensis and C. maculatus following 24h exposure. EO caused a significant reduction in oviposition and further reproductive development at LC50 doses (0.050µl/ml to 0.066µl/ml in air). Compared to control, a significant elevation in ROS level accompanied with impairment in enzymatic (SOD and CAT) and non-enzymatic (GSH/GSSH) antioxidant defense system has been observed in EO exposed insect pest. However, EO has no significant effect on in vivo AChE activity. An absolute protection of Vigna radiata seeds samples exposed to EO at LC90 doses was observed without affecting seed germination. The findings revealed that the B. carterii EO has strong insecticidal potential, hence, it could be recommended as a biorational alternative to synthetic insecticides.

Assessment of the in vitro and in vivo genotoxicity of extracts and indole monoterpene alkaloid from the roots of Galianthe thalictroides (Rubiaceae).

Roots of Galianthe thalictroides K. Schum. (Rubiaceae) are used in folk medicine in the State of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil, for treating and preventing cancer. To gain information about the genotoxicity of extracts (aqueous and EtOH), the CHCl3 phase resulting from partition of the EtOH extract and the indole monoterpene alkaloid 1 obtained from this plant. The genotoxicity of 1 and extracts was evaluated in vivo through the Drosophila melanogaster wing Somatic Mutation and Recombination Test - SMART, while in vitro cytotoxic (MTT) and Comet assays were performed only with alkaloid 1. The results obtained with the SMART test indicated that the aqueous extract had no genotoxic activity. The EtOH extract was not genotoxic to ST descendants but genotoxic to HB ones. The CHCl3 phase was genotoxic and cytotoxic. Alkaloid 1 showed significant mutational events with SMART, in the cytotoxicity assay (MTT), it showed a high cytotoxicity for human hepatoma cells (HepG2), whereas for the Comet assay, not showing genotoxic activity. The ethanol extract was shown to be genotoxic to HB descendants in the SMART assay, while the results obtained in this test for the monoterpene indole alkaloid 1 isolated from this extract.

Thujone and thujone-containing herbal medicinal and botanical products: toxicological assessment.

Thujone, a major component of the notoriously famous absinthe drink, is neurotoxic, although the current view rather downgrades its risk to humans. In animal studies, thujone inhibits the gamma-aminobutyric acid A (GABA(A)) receptor causing excitation and convulsions in a dose-dependent manner, although there are uncertainties about the doses required in humans. Toxicity of thujone has been extensively studied. Neurotoxicity is the principal toxic outcome in acute and chronic studies. There is some equivocal evidence of carcinogenicity in rats. Metabolism of thujone has been elucidated both in vitro and in vivo in several species and in vitro in human liver preparations. CYP2A6 is the principal metabolic enzyme, followed by CYP3A4 and, to a lesser extent, CYP2B6. CYP-associated metabolism may give rise to some potential pharmacogenetic and metabolic interaction consequences. Although the data base for determining exposure limits is of variable usefulness, the best estimates for allowable daily intakes via herbal preparations and diet are of the order of 3-7 mg/day. There are still important gaps in the knowledge required to assess thujone toxicity, the most important ones being human dose-concentration-effect relationships including the elucidation of bioavailability, and the actual toxicological consequences of potential pharmacogenetic variations and environmental factors.

Workplace concentrations and exposure assessment of monoterpenes in rosemary- and lavender-growing greenhouses.

OBJECTIVES: Monoterpenes can positively or negatively affect human health depending on their concentrations. To assess the atmospheric risk for greenhouse workers, monoterpene concentrations and personal exposure in herb-growing greenhouses were measured. METHODS: Monoterpene concentrations in a commercial greenhouse, where rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) and lavender (Lavandula angustifolia L.) were grown in pots, were measured every 4 hours on 11 days spread across a year. In a small experimental greenhouse, typical horticultural tasks were conducted to determine the factors increasing monoterpene concentrations. RESULTS: Concentrations of α-pinene, camphene, ß-pinene, limonene and cineole in the farmer's greenhouse were higher in winter than in summer because of longer ventilation periods of the greenhouse in summer. Further, the concentrations of these compounds were high (but <2 parts per billion in volume [ppbv]) when horticultural tasks were conducted inside the greenhouse. In a small experimental greenhouse, moving pots and cutting shoots increased ambient monoterpene concentrations to 10 ppbv. Spraying water also increased monoterpene concentrations but to a lesser extent. When performing tasks, greenhouse workers were exposed to monoterpene concentrations 2-3 times higher than the concentration in the ambient greenhouse air. CONCLUSIONS: Our measurement results reveal that monoterpene emissions are stimulated by horticultural tasks, even by spraying water. Our calculation result suggests that if ventilation is limited, the concentrations can reach levels high enough to cause sensory irritation in greenhouse workers. Greenhouse workers should be cautious when performing tasks for hours in tightly closed herb-growing greenhouses.

Quantitative risk assessment of contact sensitization: clinical data to assess utility of the model.

BACKGROUND: Contact hypersensitivity quantitative risk assessment (QRA) for fragrance ingredients is being used to establish new international standards for all fragrance ingredients that are potential skin sensitizers. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to evaluate the retrospective clinical data on three fragrance ingredients in order to provide a practical assessment of the predictive value of the QRA approach. It is important to have data to assess that the methodology provides a robust approach for primary prevention of contact sensitization induction for fragrance ingredients identified as potential sensitizers. METHODS: This article reviews clinical data for three fragrance ingredients-cinnamic aldehyde, citral, and isoeugenol-to assess the utility of the QRA approach for fragrance ingredients. RESULTS: This assessment suggests that had the QRA approach been available at the time standards were established for these fragrance ingredients, the clinical response might have been noticeably improved. Prospectively, with the establishment of QRA-derived standards, there should be a continued downward trend in patch test-positive rates for cinnamic aldehyde, citral, and isoeugenol over time. CONCLUSION: While it is recognized that the availability of retrospective data is limited, a longitudinal review of these data gives confidence that the QRA approach should be an effective tool for primary prevention. This study also highlights the importance of continued active monitoring of clinical patch-test data for fragrance ingredients.

Implementation of the dermal sensitization Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA) for fragrance ingredients.

Significant developments have recently been incorporated in the way dermal sensitization risk assessments are conducted for fragrance ingredients. Based on the RIFM Expert Panel's recommendation, RIFM and IFRA have formally adopted the QRA approach, refined for fragrance ingredients identified as contact allergens, as the core strategy for primary prevention of dermal sensitization to these materials in consumer products. This new methodology is a major improvement over the former approach because it specifically addresses the elements of exposure-based risk assessment that are unique to the induction of dermal sensitization, while being consistent with the principles of toxicological risk assessment. This methodology will be used to determine global fragrance industry product management practices (IFRA Standards) for potentially sensitizing fragrance ingredients, the first of which was implemented in May 2006 with the 40th Amendment to the IFRA Code of Practice. It contained the first four IFRA Standards based on the QRA, limiting the use of the materials for 11 individual product categories. One of the first four IFRA Standards based on the QRA was on the fragrance material citral. The basis for the acceptable exposure limits are presented in this paper.

Citral: identifying a threshold for induction of dermal sensitization.

Citral [CAS# 5392-40-5; EINECS# 226-394-6; RIFM # 116; cis- and trans-3,7-dimethyl-2,6-Octadienal] is an important fragrance ingredient appreciated for its powerful lemon-aroma. It is widely used in fragrance formulations and incorporated into numerous consumer products. A comprehensive review of the dermal sensitization data available for citral was undertaken with the goal of identifying a threshold for the induction of dermal sensitization. In 2007, a complete literature search was conducted. On-line databases that were surveyed included Chemical Abstract Services and the National Library of Medicine. In addition, the toxicologic database of the Research Institute for Fragrance materials, Inc. (RIFM) was searched, which includes numerous unpublished reports. Based on a weight of evidence approach, the data from this survey demonstrate that the human NOEL (No Observed Effect Level) for induction of dermal sensitization to citral is 1400 microg/cm(2). The identification of this induction threshold will allow for risk assessments to focus on primary prevention of contact allergy to citral based on a new Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA) paradigm. This subsequent assessment will form the basis of a risk management approach; specifically a new IFRA (International Fragrance Association) standard on the use of citral in consumer products.

Exposure assessment to alpha- and beta-pinene, delta(3)-carene and wood dust in industrial production of wood pellets.

The main aim of the study was to measure the exposure to monoterpenes (alpha- and beta-pinene and Delta(3)-carene) and wood dust during industrial production of wood pellets and briquettes. Additional aims were to compare the results from wood dust sampled on a filter with real time measurements using a direct reading instrument and to identify peak exposures to dust. Twenty-four men working at six companies involved in industrial production of wood pellets and briquettes participated in the study. Monoterpenes were measured by diffusive sampling and wood dust was measured as total dust. A data logger (DataRAM) was used for continuous monitoring of dust concentration for 18 of the participants. The sampling time was approximately 8 h. The personal exposure to monoterpenes ranged from 0.64 to 28 mg/m(3) and a statistically significant (Kruskal-Wallis test, P = 0.0002) difference in levels of monoterpenes for workers at different companies was seen. In the companies the personal exposure to wood dust varied between 0.16 and 19 mg/m(3) and for 10 participants the levels exceeded the present Swedish occupational exposure limit (OEL) of 2 mg/m(3). The levels of wood dust during the morning shift were significantly (Mann-Whitney test, P = 0.04) higher compared with the afternoon shift. Continuous registration of dust concentration showed peak values for several working operations, especially cleaning of truck engines with compressed air. For 24 workers in six companies involved in industrial production of wood pellets the personal exposure to monoterpenes was low and to wood dust high compared with the present Swedish OEL and previous studies in Swedish wood industries. Since the DataRAM can identify critical working tasks with high wood dust exposure a reduction in exposure levels could probably be achieved by changes in working routines and by the use of protective equipment.