Neoliberal science, Chinese style: Making and managing the 'obesity epidemic'.

Science and Technology Studies has seen a growing interest in the commercialization of science. In this article, I track the role of corporations in the construction of the obesity epidemic, deemed one of the major public health threats of the century. Focusing on China, a rising superpower in the midst of rampant, state-directed neoliberalization, I unravel the process, mechanisms, and broad effects of the corporate invention of an obesity epidemic. Largely hidden from view, Western firms were central actors at every stage in the creation, definition, and governmental management of obesity as a Chinese disease. Two industry-funded global health entities and the exploitation of personal ties enabled actors to nudge the development of obesity science and policy along lines beneficial to large firms, while obscuring the nudging. From Big Pharma to Big Food and Big Soda, transnational companies have been profiting from the 'epidemic of Chinese obesity', while doing little to effectively treat or prevent it. The China case suggests how obesity might have been constituted an 'epidemic threat' in other parts of the world and underscores the need for global frameworks to guide the study of neoliberal science and policymaking.

What is love? The materiality of care in Ghanaian transnational families.

In the West, economics and intimacy are assumed to occupy separate ­ even antithetical ­ domains. In Ghanaian family life, however, affection is understood to be expressed through the distribution of material resources across generations and a person's life cycle. Such an understanding of love means that migrant parents who leave their children behind in Ghana can continue to be good parents by sending remittances, and, in fact, may be considered better parents than caregivers who stay and are poorer. This construction of love also means that children tend to attach themselves to more financially secure caregivers over those with fewer economic opportunities ­ to men in favour of women, to those abroad over those in Ghana. It is precisely because love is signalled through material exchanges that children long to be with parental migrants far away who support them and feel abandoned by those parents who do not. The intertwining of economic and emotional ties in Ghanaian transnational families has significant implications for policy, as discussed in the conclusion.

Subreplacement fertility in the West before the baby boom: past and current perspectives.

Between 1920 and 1940, fertility dropped below replacement level in many Western countries. In today's scholarly literature, the drop is usually explained as a temporary reaction to the exceptional conditions of the inter-war period. This paper confronts that interpretation with the interpretations offered by scholars writing between the wars. According to leading demographers of the time, low fertility was due not to war or economic crisis, but rather to processes that now tend to be associated with the Second Demographic Transition, including secularization, individualization, rising consumerism, and women's emancipation. Since these were seen as structural features of modernization, most inter-war scholars argued that subreplacement fertility would remain an obstinate feature of modern society for an extended period of time.

Cultural encounters in the social sciences and humanities: Western émigré scholars in Turkey.

Turkish modernization relied on the western social sciences and humanities not only as an abstract and distant model, but also in the form of close encounters and interactions with western refugee scholars. This article examines the activities of western intellectuals and experts who visited Turkey in the early republican era (1923-50), especially focusing on a group of èmigrè scholars who were employed in Turkey after the university reform of 1933. While European and North American social scientists were drawn to meticulous comparisons of "east" and "west" in this period, elites in the former component of this comparative dichotomy were seeking creative ways to turn this taxonomy to their advantage. In the Turkish case, the project of adopting modernity contained universalistic aspects intended to function for particular local needs. A body of racial, historical and linguistic theories attempted to create and sustain a nationally homogeneous society while, at the same time, emphasizing the contributions of Turkishness to western and modern history. Republican scholars tried to establish the Turkish origins of western civilization with the help of western social sciences in general and of western èmigrè scholars in particular. In the process of facilitating the local efforts to import western modernity into the specificity of Turkishness, refugee scholars encountered contradictory demands and employed different strategies to respond to these demands.

The 'Brain Drain' of physicians: historical antecedents to an ethical debate, c. 1960-79.

Many western industrialized countries are currently suffering from a crisis in health human resources, one that involves a debate over the recruitment and licensing of foreign-trained doctors and nurses. The intense public policy interest in foreign-trained medical personnel, however, is not new. During the 1960s, western countries revised their immigration policies to focus on highly-trained professionals. During the following decade, hundreds of thousands of health care practitioners migrated from poorer jurisdictions to western industrialized countries to solve what were then deemed to be national doctor and nursing 'shortages' in the developed world. Migration plummeted in the 1980s and 1990s only to re-emerge in the last decade as an important debate in global health care policy and ethics. This paper will examine the historical antecedents to this ethical debate. It will trace the early articulation of the idea of a 'brain drain', one that emerged from the loss of NHS doctors to other western jurisdictions in the 1950s and 1960s. Only over time did the discussion turn to the 'manpower' losses of 'third world countries', but the inability to track physician migration, amongst other variables, muted any concerted ethical debate. By contrast, the last decade's literature has witnessed a dramatically different ethical framework, informed by globalization, the rise of South Africa as a source donor country, and the ongoing catastrophe of the AIDS epidemic. Unlike the literature of the early 1970s, recent scholarship has focussed on a new framework of global ethics.

Limit setting in mental health: historical factors and suggestions as to its rationale.

The task of enforcing behavioural limits in mental health settings is widely regarded as necessary but also potentially counter-therapeutic. There has been little discussion of the ideological basis for limit setting in psychiatry, and this paper attempts to locate the progress of this ideology from the moral treatment movement to contemporary medicalized psychiatry. It is suggested that limit setting has its foundations in the Enlightenment tradition of the autonomous individual and the power of reason, and in the dual functions of psychiatry as a therapeutic and social control system. The account draws on the work of critical psychiatry, as well as on recent research concerning the discourses and practices of mental health nurses, and concludes that these dual functions are inherent to the psychiatric project.

"Magia sexualis": sex, secrecy, and liberation in modern western esotericism.

Although the forces of Eros and Magic have long been linked in western esoteric traditions, it is really not until the nineteenth century that we see the emergence of a large and sophisticated body of literature on the art of sexual magic. This article examines the rise of sexual magic in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, placing it in the context of the larger discourse surrounding sexuality in American and British society of the Victorian era. Specifically, I focus on the teachings of the American spiritualist Paschal Beverly Randolph; the infamous "Great Beast 666," Aleister Crowley; and the founder of the first Tantrik Order in America, Pierre Bernard. Following the lead of Michel Foucault, I argue that this new literature on sexual magic was part of the larger interest in sex that pervaded Victorian culture. Far from being a period of repression and prudery, the Victorian era witnessed an unprecedented explosion of discourse on sex, particularly in its "deviant" and nonproductive forms. The rise of sexual magic at once reflects and yet also subverts many of the sexual values of mainstream Victorian culture. At the same time, however, I argue that Randolph, Crowley, and Bernard were all in their own ways somewhat ahead of their times and foreshadowed much of the obsession with sex and its liberation in contemporary America at the turn of the millennium.

Rethinking difference: a feminist reframing of gender/race/class for the improvement of women's health research.

In exploring the history of the social construction of gender/race/class in Western scientific discourse and examining the legacy of these persisting constructions in modern research on women's health, the authors join in a growing debate about sexism/racism/classism in women's health research--a debate being forwarded most forcefully by feminist epidemiologists. A major purpose of this article is to aid in the development of a new research paradigm for examining the relationship between gender, race, and class, one that considers the interdisciplinary theorizing of Third World feminists and European/American feminists of color. Following the examination of both historical and epistemological issues surrounding interlocking forms of oppression based on gender/race/class, the authors propose a feminist research agenda that not only is responsive to different women's health needs, but can potentially contribute to a process for understanding and answering the health needs of all persons.

[Social status and role of students entering Jejoongwon: focus on Kyum-Rae Lee].

This study considers the social class and social role of the entering students of Jejoongwon at that time in light of its very first medical graduate, Kyum-Rae Lee. Foremost, Kyum-Rae Lee was confirmed to have been from a middle-class family. However, unlike other chungin-class families, his family belonged to the minority. He seemed to have entered medical school to seek opportunity to move up in social class by taking advantage of special government provisions, which allowed him to learn English and Western medicine. Afterwards, he performed heroic services in the peasant-war, proceeded up to administration and participated in the modernization of Great Han Empire. With his knowledge of Western concepts, he became involved in numerous social activities, such as organizing the Enlightenment Society and leading the Enlightenment Movement. In much the same way, most early students were from low-class background with exceptional personal abilities and were able to pass aptitude examinations. Such achievements allowed them to apply for positions in the military and administrative management. Ten years later, medical education to train medical professionals was revived with changes in attitudes of people of Chosun Dynasty toward Western medicine and with creation of formal medical study.

[Hundred years' psychiatry in Korea (1899-1999)].

The western medical knowledges of the human anatomy and physiology including knowledges of central nervous system have probably been introduced into Korea by Prince Sohyon Seja in 1645. The authentic education for the western medicine at the governmental and private medical schools, however, originated from 1899 and the education of mental disease was included in curriculum of Tai-Han-uiwon, the governmental medical school before 1910. In 1913 the first department of psychiatry (Department of Mental Disease) was established at the Chongdokbu-uiwon, the clinic of the Japanese colonial government, the former Korean governmental hospital which has later developed to the Kyongs ong Imperial University Hospital. On the other hand, there was in Severance Hospital Medical College, one Australian missionary psychiatrist McLaren, who has served at Paton Memorial Hospital in Jinju, Korea from 1911, taught neurology and psychiatry from 1913 at Severance Hospital Medical College, established psychiatry ward in 1923 at the Hospital, conducted the ward in humanistic way until 1940. It was the German psychiatry which the Japanese psychiatrists have brought to the Korean peninsula and it remained as major trends of psychiatry in Korea during the Japanese occupation between 1911 and 1945. The academic levels of Kyongsong Imperial University in psychiatry as well as the quality of mental care seemed to be almost equivocal to the psychiatry in Japan. However, psychiatrists scope of social psychiatric issues and of the research interests seemed to be somewhat narrow. Due to the political discrimination for the Korean students, the Koreans had less opportunity for the promotion at the university than Japanese residents in Korea. In 1945, after the end of the Pacific War only about 11 Korean psychiatrists were left in Korea, who organized Korean Neuropsychiatric Association. The Department of Neuropsychiatry of Seoul National University (former Department of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kyongsong Imperial University) was the center for psychiatry training. The Korean War (1950-1953) enabled the interchanges between. Korean and American military psychiatrist, and motivated great change in Korean psychiatry from biologic oriented German descriptive psychiatry to the American dynamic psychobiological psychiatry. The German educational clinical systems were completely displaced by the American system, when internship and residency training system was conducted since 1958. However, there were always attempts to integrate old traditional Korean wisdoms into the modern psychiatry and to introduce European approaches and knowledges in psychiatry. With the rapid industrialization and economic development of the country since the late 1960s and the prevailing social defensive attitudes towards mentally ill patients of the leaders of the military regimes the increase of private asylums appeared where many chronically ill mental patients were kept without adequate treatment. The reform of asylums in the mid 1980s was gradually proceeded by the government leading consequently to the increase of huge mental hospitals in the land. With the democratization of the political situation as well as the social welfare policy of the government in the 1990s and with the steady stimulation elicited by some NGOs Mental Health Act was enacted in 1995 and the community mental health centers were increasingly set up in several districts. In concern with research activities in psychiatry remarkable development in social cultural as well as biological fields are recognized especially since in the 1970s academic societies for the subspecialities of psychiatry have been organized which cover the various schools of psychotherapy, social psychiatry as well as many subspecialities of biological psychiatry. The number of training hospitals have been increased as the result, the number of psychiatry specialists was increased from 93 in 1956 to 1593 in 1999. KNPA (Korean Neuropsychiatric Association) internal and international activities has been expanded. Question is however, the quality of services and the quality of academic achievement. Gradually, the voice was raised to focus more on the quality of research and training activities.

[Development of integrated traditional Chinese and western medicine and change of medical policy in China].

"Sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine" came into the world four hundred years ago when Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) contacted Western Medicine (WM) at the beginning of the 17th century. It collected historical experiences showing that the cooperation of TCM and WM is more efficient for the cure and prevention of disease than each of them separately. Now the recognition that the cooperation of eastern and western medicine is more efficient to cure disease is spreading widely. This study will help Korean eastern and western medicine to find their directions. First, the concept of "sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine" which was established between the beginning of the 17th century and the middle of the 20th century, and Integration of Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine (ITCWM) which was formed after the middle of the 20th century will be discussed. The relationship of "sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine" and ITCWM and political consideration for the establishment of ITCWM will also be discussed. Finally, the current status of ITCWM in China will be discussed. New trends of thought appeared in Chinese medicine, owing to the cultural background of modern China, the development of WM, and the academic background of the intellectual class. "Sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine" and ITCWM are different in historical and social background. However, purpose, foundation of thoughts and logical idea are fundamentally the same. It can be said that "sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine" provided academic mood to open the way for ITCWM and ITCWM is a succession of "sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine". The concept of ITCWM has many ways of explanation. However, it can be said to build up the foundation of new medical area including Chinese special way of medical treatment and new methods of modern medicine, succeeding a legacy of TCM. ITCWM began before the establishment of People's Republic of China. Mao Ze-dong (1893-1976), a powerful politician, and Li Ding-ming (1881-1947) who had many experiences and insight for TCM and WM played important roles at this stage. The period from the New China to the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966-1975) is the term for the establishment of the shape of ITCWM. "The effort of research and development on TCM-WM integration" was adapted as one of hygienic policies for curing of epidemic disease and succession and development of the heritage of TCM to establish new medical area. TCM class for western medical doctors was opened and mass media was used to spread out ITCWM throughout China. During the period of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, ITCWM had to be stepped back and stagnant. Only the TCM class of western medical doctors and some clinical applications were barely kept moving on and alive. From the period of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution to the end of the 1980s, there are the movement of re-preparation of ITCWM, education of successors, and the establishment of the Institute of ITCWM. Hospitals began to establish department of ITCWM. Furthermore, it was clearly indicated in the constitutional law that "We not only have to develop modern medicine but also traditional medicine". The equality of TCM and WM was legally established in this time. From the 1990s, "equality of TCM and WM" was adapted as one of the hygienic policies, and department of ITCWM was opened in traditional Chinese medical school and western medical school. ITCWM has been settled down as a new academic field through education, training, research, academic activity, and publishing text books. In conclusion, the motive of the development of ITCWM was the policy such as "the effort of research and development on TCM-WM integration" abd "equality of TCM and WM" aimed at the development of Chinese medical area. It is no doubt helpful to organize systems and policy-making for the cooperation of eastern and western medicine in Korea.