A macroscopic assessment of porosity and new bone formation on the inferior pars basilaris: Normal growth or an indicator of scurvy?

OBJECTIVES: This research aims to determine the aetiology of porosity and subperiosteal new bone formation on the inferior surface of the pars basilaris. MATERIALS: A total of 199 non-adult individuals aged 36 weeks gestation to 3.5 years, from a total of 12 archaeological sites throughout the UK, including Iron Age (n=43), Roman (n=12), and post-medieval (n=145) sites, with a preserved pars basilaris. METHODS: The pars basilaris was divided into six segments, with porosity (micro and macro) and subperiosteal new bone formation recorded on the inferior surface in scorbutic and non-scorbutic individuals. Scurvy was diagnosed using criteria from the palaeopathological literature that was developed using a biological approach. RESULTS: There was no statistically significant difference in microporosity between scorbutic and non-scorbutic individuals in four out of the six segments analysed. There was a significant negative correlation between age and microporosity in non-scorbutic and scorbutic individuals. A significant difference in subperiosteal new bone formation was observed between scorbutic and non-scorbutic individuals. CONCLUSIONS: Microporosity on the inferior pars basilaris should not be considered among the suite of lesions included in the macroscopic assessment of scurvy in non-adult skeletal remains (less than 3.5 years). SIGNIFICANCE: This study highlights the risk of over diagnosing scurvy in past populations. LIMITATIONS: It is difficult to distinguish between physiological (normal) and pathological (abnormal) bone changes in the skeleton of individuals less than one year of age. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH: Future research should focus on the analysis of individuals over 3.5 years of age.

Historical microbiology: researching past bioevents by integrating scholarship (re)sources with paleomicrobiology assets.

The analysis of past epidemics and pandemics, either spontaneous or of human origin, may revise the physical history of microbiota and create a temporal context in our understanding regarding pathogen attributes like virulence, evolution, transmission and disease dynamics. The data of high-tech scientific methods seem reliable, but their interpretation may still be biased when tackling events of the distant past. Such endeavors should be adjusted to other cognitive resources including historical accounts reporting the events of interest and references in alien medical cultures and terminologies; the latter may contextualize them differently from current practices. Thus 'historical microbiology' emerges. Validating such resources requires utmost care, as these may be susceptible to different biases regarding the interpretation of facts and phenomena; biases partly due to methodological limitations.

Bacteria and viruses have always impacted humankind. They do this directly by causing illness or indirectly by destroying crops and threatening livestock. We can learn a lot by studying disease events of the past ­ for example, we can see how bacteria and viruses have changed over time and predict how they might change in the future. This knowledge could be important to understanding present disease events and predicting future ones. In this review, we propose the concept of 'historical microbiology', which encourages collaboration between scientists, doctors, historians and linguists to provide historical, linguistic and cultural context to our scientific understanding of diseases of the past.

Influences of industrial development and urbanization on human lives in premodern Japan: Views from paleodemography.

OBJECTIVE: This study tests the hypothesis that industrial development and urbanization negatively impacted the living circumstances and health of inhabitants. MATERIALS: The materials used in this study included 881 human skeletons aged 15 years and older from the Medieval (1185-1573), Edo (1603-1867), and Meiji (1868-1912) periods. The Meiji period corresponds to the period when the industrial revolution spread in Japan. METHODS: Age at death and sex were estimated for each skeleton, and demographic profiles of the Medieval, Edo, and Meiji periods were compared. RESULTS: The rate of young deaths was higher in the Meiji period than in preceding periods, and urban inhabitants had a higher proportion of young deaths than rural inhabitants in the Edo period. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that industrial development and urbanization led to a decline in human health. LIMITATIONS: The results produced through Bayesian methods are likely tentative, because they vary according to the priors and reference sample. SIGNIFICANCE: Paleodemographic approaches are a useful method to elucidate the impact of industrialization and urbanization on health. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH: Decline of health associated with industrialization should be examined combining paleopathological and paleodemographic methods.

A case of dwarfism in 6th century Italy: Bioarchaeological assessment of a hereditary disorder.

OBJECTIVE: The skeletal remains of a short-statured individual (T17) are described and a differential diagnosis performed to determine the etiology of the condition. MATERIALS: An individual considered pathologically short in stature was discovered in the burial site of Piazza XX Settembre, Modena (northern Italy). METHODS: Morphological and morphometric analyses were performed, and T17 was compared to dwarfs from other localities and periods and to the adult female population from the same site. A paleopathological survey was undertaken to assess the degree of the skeletal elements of T17 were affected. RESULTS: T17 was a female, 20-30 years of age at death, with a stature of 128 cm and disproportionate dwarfism associated with congenital skeletal dysplasia. CONCLUSIONS: T17 likely affected by a form of hypochondroplasia. SIGNIFICANCE: Anatomical consequences of hypochondroplasia are presented, and the timeframe and associated burial goods suggest a 6th-century Lombard short stature belonging to one of the earliest Lombard settlements in Italy. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH: Future genetic analysis would resolve if the mutation in the type 3 fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR3) is present in the remains of T17; however, it is not exclusivly linked to hypochondroplasia.

External auditory exostoses and early Neolithic aquatic resource procurement in Cyprus: Results from Cypro-PPNB Kissonerga-Mylouthkia in regional context.

OBJECTIVE: This research is designed to evaluate the occurrence of external auditory exostoses (EAEs) in skeletal remains from the oldest known water wells in the world (Kissonerga-Mylouthkia, Cyprus, 8,200-7,200 BCE). MATERIALS: Six individuals (MNI = 6), five fragmentary temporalia, two preserved auditory canals. METHODS: Macroscopic and microscopic (up to x30) observation, with illumination; presence, type, side, severity, occlusion, number, and position of bony growths recorded. RESULTS: Bony growths within two auditory canals were discovered. Differential diagnosis includes osteomata and external auditory exostoses, with the latter consistent with the bony growths (Grade 1 EAEs, two adult males, one with single, another with two EAEs). CONCLUSIONS: The emergence of the Neolithic in Southwest Asia is thought to involve increases in dietary breadth among foraging societies (Broad-Spectrum Revolution). EAEs likely indicate maritime activity in this context, given the lack of freshwater bodies, and zooarchaeological evidence points to dietary and other uses of maritime organisms. SIGNIFICANCE: This EAE evidence is the oldest known in maritime contexts in Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East, and first in Cyprus. It contributes towards understanding the initial colonization events by Neolithic farming communities in the 9th millennium BC, and the emergence of broad-spectrum economies at the dawn of the Neolithic in Southwest Asia, crucial for re-considerations of paradigms on the transition to the Neolithic way of life in the Near East. LIMITATIONS: Only a few skeletal remains from these prehistoric contexts were available for observation. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH: Further intensive review of Cypriot skeletal collections for EAEs is advised.

The intersections of industrialization: Variation in skeletal indicators of frailty by age, sex, and socioeconomic status in 18th- and 19th-century England.

OBJECTIVES: Intersectionality theory argues that various categories of identity and forms of systemic oppression interact and produce inequalities in resource access, economic opportunities, and health outcomes. However, there has been little explicit engagement with this theory by bioarchaeologists examining disparate health outcomes in the past. This study examines the associations among frailty, age at death, sex, and socioeconomic status (SES) in 18th- and 19th-century England. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The sample for this study comes from four industrial-era cemeteries from England, ca. 1711-1857. The associations among adult age (18+ years), SES, sex, and three skeletal indicators of stress (dental enamel hypoplasia [DEH, n = 293], cribra orbitalia [CO, n = 457], periosteal lesions [PNB, n = 436]) are examined using hierarchical log-linear analysis. RESULTS: Significant interactions existed among the variables examined for two skeletal indicators: high SES females had lower frequencies of CO relative to other groups and males between ages 30-45 years exhibited higher frequencies of PNB compared to females or males of older or younger ages, regardless of SES. Additionally, sex and SES were consistently associated with age at death. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that patterns of stress indicators cannot be examined solely across unilateral axes of age, SES, or sex. Intersecting axes of privilege, marginalization, and structural oppression may have buffered high SES females from some negative health outcomes (CO) while predisposing them to others (risk of maternal mortality). Likewise, the hazardous working conditions relegated to adult males may have heightened the risk of injury, infection, and death for middle-aged men in industrial-era England.

Evidence of Skeletal Fluorosis at the Ray Site, Illinois, USA: a pathological assessment and discussion of environmental factors.

OBJECTIVE: To carefully assess skeletal lesions in close environment context in order to evaluate whether skeletal fluorosis was present in individuals living in the prehistoric Midwest, USA. MATERIALS: Skeletal remains from minimally 117 individuals recovered from the Ray Site, located in western Illinois (USA) and dated to the Middle/early Late Woodland periods (50 BC-AD 400). METHODS: Macroscopic evaluation of all recovered skeletal elements. RESULTS: Eight individuals display a constellation of abnormal bony changes, including osteosclerosis, a high frequency of fractures, and dental abnormalities. CONCLUSIONS: The osteosclerotic changes along with the naturally high fluoride content of west central Illinois soil and water suggests the presence of skeletal fluorosis. SIGNIFICANCE: This is the first report of skeletal fluorosis from archaeologically recovered human remains from North America. LIMITATIONS: The ambiguous nature of the skeletal changes associated with fluorosis, especially in the less severe stages of the disease, renders determination of the etiology difficult. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH: The continuation of paleopathological investigations of fluoride toxicity within archaeological communities recovered from this region with emphasis on the incorporation of biomedical and environmental data. Furthermore, complementary analyses of the chemical composition and the histological presentation of the skeletons could provide support for this diagnosis.

North and south: A comprehensive analysis of non-adult growth and health in the industrial revolution (AD 18th-19th C), England.

OBJECTIVE: Stark health inequalities exist in the present day between the North and South of England, with people in the South, overall, experiencing better health across a range of parameters (e.g., life expectancy and number of years spent in good health). Bioarchaeological studies of skeletal remains from cemeteries across this geographical divide have the ability to provide a temporal perspective on the etiology, longevity, and nature of this disparity. METHODS: In total 574 non-adults (0-17 years) from six urban sites (c. AD 1711-1856) were analyzed from the North and South of England. Measurements of long bone length, cortical thickness, and vertebral dimensions were analyzed alongside both skeletal and dental palaeopathological data to assess patterns of disease and growth disruption between skeletal samples. RESULTS: There were few significant differences in growth parameters between the six sites in relation to geographical location. However, the northern-based sample Coach Lane (North Shields) demonstrated some of the highest rates of pathology, with metabolic disease being particularly prevalent. DISCUSSION: Northern and southern populations suffered alike from the detrimental environmental conditions associated with urban centers of the 18th-19th centuries. However, the elevated prevalence of vitamin D deficiency seen within the Coach Lane sample is indicative of a regionally specific risk that may be related to latitude, and/or the influence of particular industries operating in the North-East.

Mississippian subadults from the Middle Cumberland and Eastern regions of Tennessee: Biological indicators of population interaction.

OBJECTIVES: Human subadult skeletal remains can provide a unique perspective into biosocial aspects of Mississippian period population interactions within and between the Middle Cumberland (MCR) and Eastern Tennessee Regions (ETR). The majority of previous studies have concentrated on adult skeletal remains, leaving out a large and extremely important population segment. METHODS: Skeletal indicators of disease, growth, body proportions, and metabolic stress were collected from subadult remains from five archaeological sites over several temporal periods. Crucial to overcoming limitations associated with the osteological paradox, the biological results were placed into an archaeological context based on prior studies as well as paleoclimatological data. RESULTS: Results reveal homogeneity both within and between regions for most skeletal indicators. However, MCR individuals exhibit a higher frequency of pathology than those from ETC, while stature is significantly lower in younger subadults from the MCR. Within the ETR, there is no evidence for biological differences between Early Dallas and subsequent Late Dallas and Mouse Creek cultural phases. Despite presumed signs of increased conflict at the Dallas site, frequencies and types of skeletal pathology and growth disruptions are comparable to other regional sites. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that despite cultural differences between the ETR and MCR, there was no large-scale intrusion from an outside population into the ETR during the Late Mississippian Period, or if one occurred, it is biologically invisible. Combined with climatic and archaeobotanical data, results suggest the MCR subadults were under increased stress in their earlier years. This may have been associated with increased interpersonal violence and dependence on few food sources occurring with greater scarcity.

A multi-method assessment of bone maintenance and loss in an Imperial Roman population: Implications for future studies of age-related bone loss in the past.

OBJECTIVES: One of the hallmarks of contemporary osteoporosis and bone loss is dramatically higher prevalence of loss and fragility in females post-menopause. In contrast, bioarchaeological studies of bone loss have found a greater diversity of age- and sex-related patterns of bone loss in past populations. We argue that the differing findings may relate to the fact that most studies use only a single methodology to quantify bone loss and do not account for the heterogeneity and complexity of bone maintenance across the skeleton and over the life course. METHODS: We test the hypothesis that bone mass and maintenance in trabecular bone sites versus cortical bone sites will show differing patterns of age-related bone loss, with cortical bone sites showing sex difference in bone loss that are similar to contemporary Western populations, and trabecular bone loss at earlier ages. We investigated this hypothesis in the Imperial Roman population of Velia using three methods: radiogrammetry of the second metacarpal (N = 71), bone histology of ribs (N = 70), and computerized tomography of trabecular bone architecture (N = 47). All three methods were used to explore sex and age differences in patterns of bone loss. RESULTS: The suite of methods utilized reveal differences in the timing of bone loss with age, but all methods found no statistically significant differences in age-related bone loss. DISCUSSION: We argue that a multi-method approach reduces the influence of confounding factors by building a reconstruction of bone turnover over the life cycle that a limited single-method project cannot provide. The implications of using multiple methods beyond studies of bone loss are also discussed.

Hyperostosis frontalis interna in female historic skeletal populations: Age, sex hormones and the impact of industrialization.

OBJECTIVES: This analysis aims to investigate the impact of industrialization on the prevalence of Hyperostosis Frontalis Interna (HFI), focusing on the roles of age and parity to examine the claim that longevity and changing reproductive patterns have led to increased rates in modern populations. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 138 individuals from two documented London skeletal assemblages of the Industrial period were analyzed employing macroscopic observation, digital radiography and MicroCT scanning to establish the prevalence rates of HFI according to modern clinical standards. Statistical analysis was also undertaken on a sub-sample of 51 females of post-menopausal age to identify any relationship between parity and HFI. RESULTS: The majority of cases of HFI were found in older females, reflecting clinical observations. The prevalence rates of HFI corresponded well to those predicted from the proportion of old age females present within populations. Age was therefore shown to be a predominant factor in HFI presence. A plateau in HFI prevalence was noted from the age of 50-59 years onwards. No statistically significant relationship was found between parity and HFI. DISCUSSION: When recorded consistently, HFI was positively correlated with age and longevity but had also increased among old age females over time. Our results suggest that nulliparity co-occurs with HFI but is not a primary factor in its pathogenesis. Key factors in HFI presence in females are likely to be increased androgens and the dysregulation of insulin and insulin-like growth factor-1.

Osteoarchaeological Studies of Human Systemic Stress of Early Urbanization in Late Shang at Anyang, China.

Through the analysis of human skeletal remains and mortuary practice in Yinxu, this study investigates the impact of early urbanization on the commoners during the Late Shang dynasty (ca. 1250-1046 B.C.). A total of 347 individuals examined in this study represent non-elites who were recovered from two different burial contexts (formally buried in lineage cemeteries and randomly scattered in refuse pits). Frequencies of enamel hypoplasia (childhood stress), cribra orbitalia (childhood stress and frailty) and osteoperiostitis (adult stress) were examined to assess systemic stress exposure. Our results reveal that there was no significant difference in the frequency of enamel hypoplasia between two burial groups and between sexes, suggesting these urban commoners experienced similar stresses during childhood, but significantly elevated levels of cribra orbitalia and osteoperiostitis were observed in the refuse pit female cohort. Theoretically, urbanization would have resulted in increased population density in the urban centre, declining sanitary conditions, and increased risk of resource shortage. Biologically, children would be more vulnerable to such physiological disturbance; as a result, high percentages of enamel hypoplasia (80.9% overall) and cribra orbitalia (30.3% overall) are observed in Yin commoners. Adults continued to suffer from stress, resulting in high frequencies of osteoperiostitis (40.0% total adults); in particular, in the refuse pit females who may also reflect a compound impact of gender inequality. Our data show that the non-elite urban population in the capital city of Late Shang Dynasty had experienced extensive stress exposure due to early urbanization with further social stratification only worsening the situation, and eventually contributing to collapse of the Shang Dynasty.

Assessment of diet and recognition of nutritional deficiencies in paleopathological studies: A review.

An essential part of paleopathology is the study of diet and nutrition as well as inferring aspects of diet and nutrition from the skeletal pathology. Interpretation of nutritional and metabolic disease-related pathologies often provides additional insight into the daily social and cultural practices of people. However, precise diagnoses of specific vitamin-related deficiencies in archaeological skeletal remains are still quite problematic and specific diagnoses are rarely possible. This partly stems from the fact that many nutritional or metabolic diseases do not necessarily result in an osteological response and when they do, the comorbidity and analogous osteological responses to vitamin deficiencies may hamper the definite diagnosis of nutrition-related disease. Clin. Anat. 29:862-869, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The identification of malaria in paleopathology-An in-depth assessment of the strategies to detect malaria in ancient remains.

The comprehensive analyses of human remains from various places and time periods, either by immunological or molecular approaches, provide circumstantial evidence that malaria tropica haunted humankind at least since dynastic ancient Egypt. Here we summarize the "actual state-of-the-art" of these bio-molecular investigations and offer a solid basis for the discussion of the paleopathology of malaria in human history.

Diagnostic value of high-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography (HR-pQCT) in the qualitative assessment of cribra orbitalia: a preliminary study.

Cribra orbitalia are a porotic or sieve-like lesions in the bony orbital roof. This characteristic has frequently been detected in palaeopathological skulls from many parts of the world and has been the object of extensive research. Our objective was to determine if high-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography (HR-pQCT) could produce reliable information in the study of cribra orbitalia. Seven skulls displaying cribra orbitalia were investigated by HR-pQCT. The two-dimensional slices were compared with histological sections. The HR-pQCT images and histological sections showed similar results, i.e. two groups of lesions with different characteristics. HR-pQCT can be of great value in palaeopathological research. It is a nondestructive, fast and precise technique that allows an easy evaluation of the bone architecture without destruction of the sample.

A produção do conhecimento em Paleoparasitologia: uma análise bibliométrica e epistêmica / The production of knowledge in paleoparasitology: a bibliometric analysis and epistemic

O debate sobre os modelos explicativos do processo saúde-doença abarca desde dimensões dabiologia dos seres vivos, até a dinâmica social e as práticas culturais, sendo informado pordiferentes campos disciplinares, tais como biologia, sociologia, antropologia, economia etc.Este debate não é amparado apenas nos estudos de contextos atuais, mas também de elementosque evidenciam traços da presença humana ancestral e articulam a reconstrução de antigoscenários da dinâmica saúde-doença das populações, por meio de vestígios biológicos ousocioculturais. Nessa perspectiva, surge ao final da década de 1970 a Paleoparasitologia, ciênciadedicada ao estudo de parasitoses em populações ancestrais por intermédio de materialarqueológico e fóssil. Ainda que os trabalhos iniciais apresentassem achados de caráterprincipalmente descritivos, o uso atual de métodos epidemiológicos e técnicas molecularesproporciona uma análise mais abrangente na conjugação de dados arqueológicos a modelosecológicos e culturais pré-históricos sobre doenças. O objetivo principal deste estudo consistiuem demonstrar como se configurou a Paleoparasitologia, por meio do exame de sua produçãoacadêmica em artigos ao longo dos primeiros trinta anos de seu estabelecimento (1980-2009).O estudo serviu-se de perspectivas bibliométricas e epistêmicas como ferramentascomplementares na análise identitária de seu domínio de saber. A avaliação quantitativa e omapeamento de redes colaborativas foram conduzidos com base em métodos da bibliometria ecientometria...

Como complemento, e visando examinar o caráter epistemológico daPaleoparasitologia, o conjunto de dados foi submetido a um método desenvolvido com base nodiscurso de segunda ordem (ou metaciência) proposto por Imre Lakatos, sua Metodologia dosProgramas de Pesquisa Científica. Diversamente às apreciações correntes, que ora a evocamcomo especialidade da Parasitologia, ora a consideram como ramo da Paleopatologia, a análiserealizada produziu indícios de que a Paleoparasitologia possui elementos constitutivos que aclassificam como disciplina própria, ou como ciência, na visão lakatosiana de Programa dePesquisa Científica...

Health status among prehistoric Eskimos from Point Hope, Alaska.

Using the protocol outlined in The Backbone of History: Health and Nutrition in the Western Hemisphere (BBH) (Steckel and Rose. 2002a. The backbone of history: health and nutrition in the Western Hemisphere. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), this project compares the Mark I Health Index (MIHI) scores of the Ipiutak (n = 76; 100BCE-500CE) and Tigara (n = 298; 1200-1700CE), two samples of North American Arctic Eskimos excavated from Point Hope, Alaska. Macroscopic examination of skeletal remains for evidence of anemia, linear enamel hypoplasias (LEH), infection, trauma, dental health, and degenerative joint disease (DJD) was conducted to assess differences in health status resulting from a major economic shift at Point Hope. These data demonstrate that despite differences in settlement pattern, economic system, and dietary composition, the MIHI scores for the Ipiutak (82.1) and Tigara (84.6) are essentially equal. However, their component scores differ considerably. The Ipiutak component scores are suggestive of increased prevalence of chronic metabolic and biomechanical stresses, represented by high prevalence of nonspecific infection and high frequencies of DJD in the hip/knee, thoracic vertebrae, and wrists. The Tigara experienced more acute stress, evidenced by higher prevalence of LEH and trauma. Comparison of overall health index scores with those published in BBH shows the MIHI score for the Ipiutak and Tigara falling just above the average for sites in the Western Hemisphere, adding support to the argument that the human capacity for cultural amelioration of environmental hardships is quite significant.

Race, health, and disease in 19th-century-born males.

This study analyzed skeletal health disparities among African American and Euro-American males of low socioeconomic status born between 1825 and 1877. A total of 651 skeletons from the Cobb, Hamann-Todd, and Terry anatomical collections were macroscopically examined for skeletal pathologies related to dietary deficiencies and disease. Individuals were separated into age, ancestry, birth (Antebellum, Civil War, Pre-Reconstruction, and Reconstruction), combined ancestry/birth, enslaved versus liberated, and collection cohorts. These groups were statistically evaluated using ANOVA and χ(2) analyses to determine if age, ethnic, and temporal differences existed. Results indicated that African Americans, especially those born during Reconstruction, had significantly higher frequencies of tuberculosis (P = 0.004) and treponematosis (P = 0.006) than Euro-Americans. Historical sources are important in contextualizing why these different ethnic and temporal patterns were present, pointing to environmental conditions related to enslavement, postliberation migration to the industrialized North, crowded urban living conditions, and poor sanitation.