"Endeavoring to Carry On Their Work": The National Debate Over Midwives and Its Impact in Rhode Island, 1890-1940.

This article analyzes the national discourse over "the problem" of midwifery in medical literature and examines the impact of this dialogue on Rhode Island from 1890 to 1940. Doctors did not speak as a monolithic bloc on this "problem": some blamed midwives while others impugned poorly trained physicians. This debate led to curricula reform and to state laws to regulate midwifery. The attempt to eliminate midwives in the 1910s failed because of a shortage of trained obstetricians, and because of cultural barriers between immigrant and mainstream communities. A decrease in immigration, an increase in trained obstetricians, the growing notion of midwives as relics of an outdated past, and the emergence of insurance plans to cover "modern" hospital births led to a decline in midwifery.

The domestic participation in birth assistance in the mid-twentieth century.

OBJECTIVE: to describe how the progressive creation of the Social Security (providing widespread health care) affected the birth assistance in Spain from the 1940s to the 1970s in a rural area. METHOD: historical ethnography. Twenty-seven people who lived at that time were selected and interviewed guided by a semistructured script. Based on their testimonies, a chart was built with the functional elements involved in birth assistance in this region. RESULTS: three agents performed such care: traditional midwives, women of the family/neighbors and health workers. CONCLUSION: although birth assistance had been transferred to the hands of the health workers from the forties in this region, women in labor continued to count on the domestic resources until the early seventies, when births were compulsorily transferred to hospitals. This research brings to light the names and recognizes the work performed by these female characters of the popular sphere, who helped women in labor of that community to give birth, for at least three decades.

The domestic participation in birth assistance in the mid-twentieth century / A participação doméstica na assistência ao parto em meados do século XX / La participación de lo doméstico en la atención del parto a mediados del siglo XX

Abstract Objective: to describe how the progressive creation of the Social Security (providing widespread health care) affected the birth assistance in Spain from the 1940s to the 1970s in a rural area. Method: historical ethnography. Twenty-seven people who lived at that time were selected and interviewed guided by a semistructured script. Based on their testimonies, a chart was built with the functional elements involved in birth assistance in this region. Results: three agents performed such care: traditional midwives, women of the family/neighbors and health workers. Conclusion: although birth assistance had been transferred to the hands of the health workers from the forties in this region, women in labor continued to count on the domestic resources until the early seventies, when births were compulsorily transferred to hospitals. This research brings to light the names and recognizes the work performed by these female characters of the popular sphere, who helped women in labor of that community to give birth, for at least three decades.

Resumo Objetivo: descrever como a criação progressiva da Seguridade Social (oferecendo assistência médica ampla) afetou a assistência ao parto na Espanha durante as décadas de 1940 a 1970, em uma região rural. Método: etnografia histórica. Foram selecionadas 27 pessoas que viveram nessa época, as quais foram entrevistadas com o auxílio de um roteiro semiestruturado. Através dos seus depoimentos, construiu-se um quadro com os elementos funcionais envolvidos na assistência ao nascimento nessa região. Resultado: três agentes desempenhavam tal assistência: parteiras tradicionais, mulheres da família/vizinhas e profissionais da saúde. Conclusão: apesar da assistência durante o parto ter sido transferida para a responsabilidade dos profissionais da saúde a partir dos anos quarenta, nesta região as parturientes continuaram utilizando os recursos domésticos até o início dos anos setenta, quando os partos foram obrigatoriamente transferidos para os hospitais. Esta pesquisa traz à tona os nomes e reconhece o trabalho de personagens femininas da classe popular, que ajudaram mulheres em trabalho de parto dessa comunidade a dar à luz, durante pelo menos três décadas.

Resumen Objetivo: describir cómo incidió la creación progresiva de la Seguridad Social (ofreciendo asistencia sanitaria generalizada) en la atención al parto en España durante las décadas de 1940 a 1970, en una zona rural. Método: etnografía histórica. Se seleccionaron 27 personas que habían vivido en esos años, y se las entrevistó apoyadas por un guión semiestructurado. A través de sus testimonios se construyó un mapa con los elementos funcionales implicados en los cuidados en el nacimiento en ese territorio. Resultado: tres actores desempeñaban dicha atención: parteras tradicionales, mujeres familiares/vecinas y personal sanitario. Conclusión: a pesar de que la asistencia en el momento del parto pasó a estar en manos de los sanitarios a partir de los años cuarenta, en esta zona las parturientas siguieron haciendo uso de los recursos domésticos hasta bien entradas los setenta, cuando los partos obligatoriamente fueron desplazados a los hospitales. Esta investigación saca a la luz el nombre y reconoce la labor de personajes femeninos que, desde la esfera popular, ayudaron a dar a luz a parturientas de esa comunidad durante, al menos, tres décadas.

Finance and faith at the Catholic Maternity Institute, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1944-1969.

In 1944, the Medical Mission Sisters opened the Catholic Maternity Institute in Santa Fe, New Mexico, primarily to serve patients of Spanish American descent. The Maternity Institute offered nurse-midwifery care and functioned as a school to train nurse-midwifery students. Originally planned as a home birth service, the Catholic Maternity Institute soon evolved into a service in which patients chose whether to deliver in their own homes or in a small freestanding building called La Casita. In fact, despite their idealism about home birth and strong feelings that home birth was best, the sisters experienced significant ambivalence concerning La Casita. Births there met many of the institute's pragmatic needs for a larger number of student experiences, quick and safe transfers to a nearby hospital, and more efficient use of the midwives' time. Importantly, as the sisters realized that many of their patients preferred to deliver at La Casita, they came to see that this option permitted these impoverished patients an opportunity to exercise some choice. However, the choice of many patients to deliver at La Casita--which was significantly more expensive for the Maternity Institute than home birth--eventually led to the demise of the Maternity Institute.

Home birth and short-stay delivery. Lessons in health care financing for providers of health care for women.

The current restructuring of the U.S. health care delivery system is driven primarily by economic forces. Although primary care providers may understand the roles of technology and advocacy in fostering fundamental change, they may not be familiar with the issues related to financing of health care and, thus, may not fully appreciate the extent to which economic factors influence the character of their professional lives and the services they provide. Analysis of the loss of the home birth option in the 1950s provides a method for understanding and influencing the factors driving health care restructuring today. In examining short-stay delivery in the 1990s, this article also addresses ways in which managed health care systems may improve or restrict women's access to a variety of primary care services.

Birth choices, the law, and medicine: balancing individual freedoms and protection of the public's health.

To many Americans, the idea of home birth, the use of a "direct-entry midwife," or both seem archaic. Although much of the professional medical community disapproves of either, state laws regarding birth choices vary dramatically and are not necessarily based on empirical findings of childbirth outcomes. Public health practitioners, policymakers, and consumers view childbirth from the perspectives of safety, cost, freedom of choice, quality of the care experience, and legality, yet the professional, policy, and lay literatures have not offered an unemotional, balanced presentation of evidence. Reviewing the full spectrum of literature from the United States and abroad, we present a Constitutional medical-legal analysis of whether home birth with direct-entry midwives is in fact a safe alternative to physician-attended hospital births, and whether there is a legal basis for allowing alternative health policy choices is such an important yet personal family matter as childbirth. The literature shows that low- to moderate-risk home births attended by direct-entry midwives are at least as safe as hospital births attended by either physicians or midwives. The policy ramifications include important changes in state regulation of medical and alternative health personnel, the allowance of the home as a medically acceptable and legal birth setting, and reimbursement of this lower-cost option through private and public health insurers.

The alternative birth movement in the United States: history and current status.

The alternative birth movement is a consumer reaction to paternalistic and mechanistic medical obstetrical practices which developed in the United States early in this century. Alternative birth settings developed as single labor-delivery-recovery rooms in the hospital or as free-standing birth centers. Both alternatives offer family-centered, home-like, low technological maternity care. In order to overcome physician resistance to non-traditional maternity care, alternative birth center policies eliminate all women who are expected to have a complicated pregnancy or delivery. Physician resistance to alternative birthing is publicly based on the issue of maternal and infant safety. Additional issues, however, are that physicians fear economic competition and resist loss of control over obstetric practice. This paper (1) traces the historical antecedents and social factors leading to the alternative birth movement, (2) describes the types of alternative birthing methods, and (3) describes ways in which the obstetrical community has maintained and rationalized dominance over the birthing process.