HIV Vaccine Development: 35 Years of Experimenting in the Funding of Biomedical Research.

Funding vaccine development research is more complicated than simply putting out an announcement of funds available. The funders must decide whether product development can be accomplished by purely applied research, or whether more fundamental knowledge is needed before product development can be started. If additional basic knowledge is needed, identifying the specific area of the knowledge gap can be a challenge. Additionally, when there appears to be a clear path of applied research sometimes obstacles are encountered that require a return to more basic work. After deciding on the work to be done, funders must attract the scientists with the broad range of needed skills to cover all the stages of development. Collaborations must be promoted and alliances with other funders and industry must be developed. Funders use multiple tools and strategies to accomplish these tasks with varying success.

A history of assessment in medical education.

The way quality of assessment has been perceived and assured has changed considerably in the recent 5 decades. Originally, assessment was mainly seen as a measurement problem with the aim to tell people apart, the competent from the not competent. Logically, reproducibility or reliability and construct validity were seen as necessary and sufficient for assessment quality and the role of human judgement was minimised. Later, assessment moved back into the authentic workplace with various workplace-based assessment (WBA) methods. Although originally approached from the same measurement framework, WBA and other assessments gradually became assessment processes that included or embraced human judgement but based on good support and assessment expertise. Currently, assessment is treated as a whole system problem in which competence is evaluated from an integrated rather than a reductionist perspective. Current research therefore focuses on how to support and improve human judgement, how to triangulate assessment information meaningfully and how to construct fairness, credibility and defensibility from a systems perspective. But, given the rapid changes in society, education and healthcare, yet another evolution in our thinking about good assessment is likely to lurk around the corner.

[A historical approach to the issues of gender and health]. / Une approche historique des enjeux de genre et de santé.

From the 1980s, the dissociation of sexuality and reproduction has led to questioning on the "evidence" of the female-male categories. The United States were the first to take governmental initiatives to offset the under-representation of women, particularly in the field of research. They were followed, twenty years later, by the European Community. However, inequalities between women and men persist today. It seems obvious that only proactive measures can help to improve this situation.

[COVID-19, and the History of Social Science Disaster Research]. / COVID-19 und die Geschichte der sozialwissenschaftlichen Katastrophenforschung.

This paper is part of Forum COVID-19: Perspectives in the Humanities and Social Sciences.The article connects and juxtaposes current day (social scientific) discussions on the social effects of the COVID-crisis with the history of social science disaster research during the Cold War. It elaborates on statements regarding the role of social inequalities in disaster, the idea of the "revealing" nature of disaster and crisis, and the relationship between disaster science, public and politics.

'All the stars were aligned'? The origins of England's National Institute for Health Research.

BACKGROUND: In 2006, the research and development (R&D) activity of England's national healthcare system, the National Health Service, was reformed. A National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) was established within the Department of Health, the first body to manage this activity as an integrated system, unlocking significant increases in government funding. This article investigates how the NIHR came to be set up, and why it took the form it did. Our goal was a better understanding of 'how we got here'. METHODS: We conducted oral history interviews with 38 key witnesses, held a witness seminar, and examined published and unpublished documents. RESULTS: We conclude that the most important forces shaping the origin of NIHR were the growing impact of evidence-based medicine on service policies, the growth of New Public Management ways of thinking, economic policies favouring investment in health R&D and buoyant public funding for healthcare. We note the strong two-way interaction between the health research system and the healthcare system - while beneficial for the use of research, challenges for healthcare (such as stop-go funding) could also produce challenges for health research. CONCLUSIONS: Understanding how and why England came to have a centralised health service research system alongside a long-established funder of biomedical research (the Medical Research Council) helps us interpret the significance of the English health research experience for other countries and helps English policy-makers better understand their present options. Learning lessons from the features of the English health research system calls for an understanding of the processes which shaped it. Firstly, the publicly funded, nationally organised character of healthcare promoted government interest in evidence-based medicine, made research prioritisation simpler and helped promote the implementation of findings. Secondly, the essential role of leadership by a group who valued research for its health impact ensured that new management methods (such as metrics and competitive tendering) were harnessed to patient benefit, rather than as an end in themselves. A policy window of government willingness to invest in R&D for wider economic goals and buoyant funding of the health system were also effectively exploited.

Grief: A Brief History of Research on How Body, Mind, and Brain Adapt.

OBJECTIVE: Using an integrative view of psychology, neuroscience, immunology, and psychophysiology, the present review of literature curates the findings that have had an impact on the field of bereavement research and shaped its development. METHODS: Beginning with pivotal systematic descriptions of medical and psychological responses to the death of a loved one by Lindemann in the mid-1940s, this selective review integrates findings in bereavement research from studies that investigate medical outcomes after loss, their psychological predictors, and biopsychosocial mechanisms. RESULTS: Morbidity and mortality after the death of a loved one have long been a topic of research. Early researchers characterized somatic and psychological symptoms and studied immune cell changes in bereaved samples. More recent research has repeatedly demonstrated increased rates of morbidity and mortality in bereaved samples, as compared with married controls, in large epidemiological studies. Recent developments also include the development of criteria for prolonged grief disorder (also termed complicated grief). Newer methods, including neuroimaging, have observed that the greatest impact of the death of a loved one is in those who have the most severe psychological grief reactions. Research addressing the mechanisms tying bereavement to medical outcomes is relatively scarce, but differences in rumination, in inflammation, and in cortisol dysregulation between those who adapt well and those who do not have been offered with some evidence. CONCLUSIONS: Recommendations to propel the field forward include longitudinal studies to understand differences between acute reactions and later adaptation, comparing samples with grief disorders from those with more typical responses, and integrating responses in brain, mind, and body.

A paradigmatic visionary perspective: professional master's in nursing / Una perspectiva paradigmática visionaria: maestría profesional en enfermeira / Uma perspectiva paradigmática visionária: mestrado profissional em enfermagem

ABSTRACT Objective: To reflect on the key concepts of the book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions and its applicability in professional master's in nursing. Method: This is a theoretical-reflective study that uses the philosophical and epistemological conceptions of the philosopher Thomas Samuel Kuhn to consider its applicability on the paradigm shift of stricto sensu graduate courses in nursing. The main concepts of Kuhn were used as support: paradigm, anomaly, scientific community and scientific revolution. Results: The propositions of this philosopher are applied to and support the theoretical reflection on professional master's programs, contributing to clarify what would be a paradigmatic visionary perspective in stricto sensu master's models in nursing. Conclusion: From Kuhn's propositions it was possible to conclude that professional master's programs in nursing can break away from the dominant paradigm, strengthening a scientific revolution within the academia.

RESUMEN Objetivo: Reflexionar sobre los conceptos clave de la obra A estrutura das revoluções científicas y su aplicabilidad en el máster profesional en enfermería. Método: Estudio teórico-reflexivo que parte de las concepciones filosóficas y epistemológicas del filósofo Thomas Samuel Kuhn a fin de pensar su aplicabilidad en el cambio de paradigma de los cursos de postgrado stricto sensu en enfermería. Se buscó soporte en los principales conceptos de Kuhn: el paradigma, la anomalía, la comunidad científica y la revolución científica. Resultados: Las proposiciones del referido filósofo se aplican y al mismo tiempo sostienen la reflexión teórica sobre el máster profesional, contribuyendo a aclarar lo que sería una perspectiva paradigmática visionaria en la modalidad stricto sensu de maestría en enfermería. Conclusión: A través de las proposiciones de Kuhn se concluyó que los programas de maestría profesional en enfermería pueden romper con el paradigma dominante, potenciando una revolución científica en el ámbito académico.

RESUMO Objetivo: Refletir sobre os conceitos-chave da obra A estrutura das revoluções científicas e sua aplicabilidade no mestrado profissional em enfermagem. Método: Estudo teórico-reflexivo, que parte das concepções filosóficas e epistemológicas do filósofo Thomas Samuel Kuhn a fim de pensar sua aplicabilidade na mudança de paradigma dos cursos de pós-graduação stricto sensu em enfermagem. Buscou-se suporte nos principais conceitos de Kuhn: paradigma, anomalia, comunidade científica e revolução científica. Resultados: As proposições do referido filósofo se aplicam e ao mesmo tempo sustentam a reflexão teórica sobre o mestrado profissional, contribuindo para aclarar o que seria uma perspectiva paradigmática visionária na modalidade stricto sensu de mestrado em enfermagem. Conclusão: Por meio das proposições de Kuhn foi possível concluir que os programas de mestrado profissional em enfermagem são capazes de romper com o paradigma dominante, potencializando uma revolução científica no âmbito acadêmico.

Non-stick science: Sixty years of research and (in)action on fluorinated compounds.

Understandings of environmental governance both assume and challenge the relationship between expert knowledge and corresponding action. We explore this interplay by examining the context of knowledge production pertaining to a contested class of chemicals. Per-and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFASs) are widely used industrial compounds containing chemical chains of carbon and fluorine that are persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic. Although industry and regulatory scientists have studied the exposure and toxicity concerns of these compounds for decades, and several contaminated communities have documented health concerns as a result of their high levels of exposure, PFAS use remains ubiquitous in a large range of consumer and industrial products. Despite this significant history of industry knowledge production documenting exposure and toxicity concerns, the regulatory approach to PFASs has been limited. This is largely due to a regulatory framework that privileges industry incentives for rapid market entry and trade secret protection over substantive public health protection, creating areas of unseen science, research that is conducted but never shared outside of institutional boundaries. In particular, the risks of PFASs have been both structurally hidden and unexamined by existing regulatory and industry practice. This reveals the uneven pathways that construct issues of social and scientific concern.

Matanzas: en los inicios de la Ciencia en Cuba / Matanzas: at the begining of the Science in Cuba

No puede relatarse el desarrollo de la ciencia cubana, sin la valoración justa y aceptada del papel desempeñado por destacados científicos matanceros; en el presente trabajo se aborda el quehacer de tres destacadas, figuras que dejaron su impronta en las nuevas generaciones: Juan Santos Fernández Hernández (1847-1922), Ángel Arturo Aballí Arellano (1880-1952) y José Isaac Corral Alemán (1882-1946), hombres nacidos en diferentes lugares de la geografía matancera. stos científicos, en condiciones políticas y económicas difíciles fueron capaces de prevalecer en el tiempo y moldear con su ejemplo imperecedero a las generaciones de científicos cubanos que les sucedieron (AU).

The development of the sciences in Cuba cannot be narrated without the objective and accepted evaluation of the role played by important scientists from Matanzas; the current work approaches the deed of three important figures that left their imprint for the new generations: Juan Santos Fernández Hernández (1847-1922), Ángel Arturo Aballí Arellano (1880-1952) y José Isaac Corral Alemán (1882-1946), who were born in different points of the territory of Matanzas. hese scientists, in difficult political and economic conditions, were able of transcending the time and to mold with their undying example the generations of Cuban scientists succeeding them (AU).

An Industry Perspective on Dengue Drug Discovery and Development.

Dengue is the most important mosquito-borne viral disease in the world, representing a major unmet medical need and a growing public health concern. The disease imposes a heavy burden to the affected individuals, to the health care systems, and to the economies of endemic countries. Vector control is the most widespread tool to curb dengue epidemics, but has been insufficient. Therefore, additional means such as vaccines and antivirals are required to aid in a coordinated response. The discovery and development of small molecule dengue virus inhibitors as a tool to prevent and/or treat dengue disease faces major hurdles in combining pan-serotypic efficacy, safety, and optimal drug-like properties. Moreover, the financial return of dengue drug projects may not compensate for the initial investment in research and development. This review article addresses the efforts undertaken to face the dengue epidemics, focusing on antiviral drug development. The dengue drug research and development process is described in detail and a dengue antiviral target product profile is proposed. The article discusses collaborations between the different players in the research field: government and government-sponsored organizations, pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, academia, and non-profit and philanthropic organizations. Public-private partnerships are proposed as a model to boost dengue research and development towards an approved antiviral drug in the near future.

The history of antivenoms development: Beyond Calmette and Vital Brazil.

This review presents the main contributions to our knowledge regarding the development of antivenoms for therapeutic use in victims of venomous animal bites. We cover the progress of serum therapy since tetanus and diphtheria antitoxins in Germany and France until the current scenario of antivenom production worldwide. During these more than 120 years of antivenom development, many researchers contributed to establish what are nowadays the antivenoms used for therapeutic purpose. The history of antivenoms development is fascinating! This review aims to recognize all those who contributed to the establishment of new sera, new methodologies and saving lives: much more than Calmette and Vital Brazil.

A Research Enclave in 1940s Nigeria: The Rockefeller Foundation Yellow Fever Research Institute at Yaba, Lagos, 1943-49.

This article examines the history of yellow fever research carried out in West Africa in the 1940s by Rockefeller Foundation scientists. It engages with a number of debates in the history of medical research in colonial Africa, including experimentation, the construction of the "field," and biosecurity.

Inequalities in global health inequalities research: A 50-year bibliometric analysis (1966-2015).

BACKGROUND: Increasing evidence shows that health inequalities exist between and within countries, and emphasis has been placed on strengthening the production and use of the global health inequalities research, so as to improve capacities to act. Yet, a comprehensive overview of this evidence base is still needed, to determine what is known about the global and historical scientific production on health inequalities to date, how is it distributed in terms of country income groups and world regions, how has it changed over time, and what international collaboration dynamics exist. METHODS: A comprehensive bibliometric analysis of the global scientific production on health inequalities, from 1966 to 2015, was conducted using Scopus database. The historical and global evolution of the study of health inequalities was considered, and through joinpoint regression analysis and visualisation network maps, the preceding questions were examined. FINDINGS: 159 countries (via authorship affiliation) contributed to this scientific production, three times as many countries than previously found. Scientific output on health inequalities has exponentially grown over the last five decades, with several marked shift points, and a visible country-income group affiliation gradient in the initiation and consistent publication frequency. Higher income countries, especially Anglo-Saxon and European countries, disproportionately dominate first and co-authorship, and are at the core of the global collaborative research networks, with the Global South on the periphery. However, several country anomalies exist that suggest that the causes of these research inequalities, and potential underlying dependencies, run deeper than simply differences in country income and language. CONCLUSIONS: Whilst the global evidence base has expanded, Global North-South research gaps exist, persist and, in some cases, are widening. Greater understanding of the structural determinants of these research inequalities and national research capacities is needed, to further strengthen the evidence base, and support the long term agenda for global health equity.

Africanizing Science in Post-colonial Kenya: Long-Term Field Research in the Amboseli Ecosystem, 1963-1989.

Following Kenya's independence in 1963, scientists converged on an ecologically sensitive area in southern Kenya on the northern slope of Mt. Kilimanjaro called Amboseli. This region is the homeland of the Ilkisongo Maasai who grazed this ecosystem along with the wildlife of interest to the scientists. Biologists saw opportunities to study this complex community, an environment rich in biological diversity. The Amboseli landscape proved to be fertile ground for testing new methods and lines of inquiry in the biological sciences that were generalizable and important for shaping natural resource management policies in Kenya. However, the local community was in the midst of its own transformation from a primarily transhumant lifestyle to a largely sedentary one, a complex political situation between local and national authorities, and the introduction of a newly educated generation. This article examines the intersection of African history and field science through the post-colonial Africanization of Kenyan politics, the broadening of scientific practices in Amboseli in previously Western-occupied spaces to include Kenyan participants, and an increasing awareness of the role of local African contexts in the results, methods, and implications of biological research. "Africanization" as an idea in the history of science is multifaceted encompassing not just Africans in the scientific process, but it needs an examination of the larger political and social context on both a local and national level.

From 'just the facts' to 'more theory and methods, please': The evolution of the research article in Administrative Science Quarterly, 1956-2008.

This paper analyzes the surface structure of research articles published in Administrative Science Quarterly between 1956 and 2008. The period is marked by a shift from essays that interweave theory, methods and results to experimental reports that separate them. There is dramatic growth in the size of theory, methods and discussion sections, accompanied by a shrinking results section. Bibliographic references and hypotheses expand in number and become concentrated in theory sections. Article structure varies primarily with historical time and also with research design (broadly, quantitative vs. qualitative) and the author's background. We link trends in article structure to the disciplinary development of organization studies and consider its distinctive trajectory relative to physical science.