Development and Assessment of a Patient "Journey Guide" for Adult Traumatic Brachial Plexus Injury.

BACKGROUND: Patients with a traumatic brachial plexus injury (BPI) have previously identified the need for improved patient education tools, emphasizing the importance of communicating outcome expectations, providing attention to the emotional aspects of the injury and the treatment of pain, and acknowledging the needs of caregivers. We created a journey guide, a BPI-specific educational tool, to address these deficiencies. In this study, we determined the acceptability of the journey guide through surveys of and semistructured interviews with patients with a BPI. METHODS: The journey guide was created by a multidisciplinary team focusing on previously defined areas for the improvement of patient education and care delivery related to BPI. To assess the acceptability of the journey guide, we recruited 19 participants from the brachial plexus clinic of our institution and the United Brachial Plexus Network to complete a series of surveys and semistructured interviews. Participants completed surveys regarding their satisfaction with the journey guide, and we conducted semistructured interviews to assess patient BPI experiences and impressions of the journey guide and to seek feedback. Interview transcripts were qualitatively analyzed to determine common themes for improvement. RESULTS: A total of 19 participants with a mean age of 44.7 years were included. The cohort was predominantly male (13 participants) and White (16 participants). The mean time since BPI was 12.9 years, ranging from 2.0 to 39.7 years. On a visual analog scale, satisfaction with the journey guide was given a mean score of 8.4; expected usefulness when a patient is first injured, 8.7; potential for continued use, 7.3; and the fit for the BPI community, 8.8. Qualitative analysis demonstrated a primarily positive view of the guide and identified 4 major themes: (1) visuals and quotes improve clarity and engagement, (2) the journey guide would be most useful immediately following an injury, (3) the journey guide is an effective organizational tool, and (4) it is difficult to orient patients toward future hardships. CONCLUSIONS: The journey guide successfully filled a gap in the current care for BPI and was largely deemed acceptable by patients with a BPI. Specifically, participants found the journey guide to be a concise educational resource and an effective organizational tool. Participants also indicated that areas for improvement include the increased use of graphics and images and recognition of the greater BPI community with which patients can engage.

An assessment of co-contraction in reinnervated muscle.

Aim: To investigate co-contraction in reinnervated elbow flexor muscles following a nerve transfer. Materials & methods: 12 brachial plexus injury patients who received a nerve transfer to reanimate elbow flexion were included in this study. Surface electromyography (EMG) recordings were used to quantify co-contraction during sustained and repeated isometric contractions of reinnervated and contralateral uninjured elbow flexor muscles. Reuslts: For the first time, this study reveals reinnervated muscles demonstrated a trend toward higher co-contraction ratios when compared with uninjured muscle and this is correlated with an earlier onset of muscle fatigability. Conclusion: Measurements of co-contraction should be considered within muscular function assessments to help drive improvements in motor recovery therapies.

The assisting hand assessment for children and youth with brachial plexus birth injury: a study of validity and item hierarchy of AHA-Plex.

OBJECTIVE: Functional assessments that focus on activity performance and that produce valid outcome measures for people with brachial plexus birth injury are lacking. The primary aim of this study was to re-evaluate the internal scale validity of the Assisting Hand Assessment specifically for children and adolescents with brachial plexus birth injury. Two further aims were investigating whether the scale could be shortened for this group while maintaining psychometric quality, and exploring and presenting its item difficulty hierarchy. DESIGN: A cross-sectional psychometric study. SUBJECTS: A convenience sample of 105 children and adolescents (aged 18 months to 18 years, mean 6 years, 7 months, standard deviation (SD) 4 years, 4 months) from Sweden, Norway, and the Netherlands with brachial plexus birth injury. METHODS: Participants were assessed with the Assisting Hand Assessment. Data were analysed with Rasch measurement analysis. RESULTS: The 20 Assisting Hand Assessment items together measured a unidimensional construct with high reliability (0.97) and the 4-level rating scale functioned well. Item reduction resulted in 15 items with good item fit, unidimensionality, reliability and acceptable targeting. CONCLUSION: Assisting Hand Assessment for people with brachial plexus birth injury, called AHA-Plex, has 15 items and good internal scale validity. A unique item hierarchy for people with brachial plexus birth injury is presented.

Diagnostic Performance of 3D-NERVE as an Adjunct to Electromyography for the Assessment of Brachial Plexus Injury in Infants.

Objective: This study aimed to explore diagnostic performance of 3D-NERVE as an adjunct to electromyography for the assessment of brachial plexus injury in infants. Methods: Imaging of infants with brachial plexus injury using 3D-NERVE and/or 3D-STIR from 2019 to 2022 were reviewed. Images were evaluated between the 2 sequences for nerve-to-fat ratio, nerve-to-muscle ratio, muscle-to-fat ratio, fat suppression homogeneity, and display rate of brachial plexus branches. Results: This study included 37 infants who were referred for a clinical diagnosis of brachial plexus injury. A total of 21 infants accepted 3D-NERVE sequence scanning, and 16 infants accepted 3D-NERVE and 3D-STIR sequences scanning. The results of examination were generally consistent with electromyography. The 2 sequences were compared, yielding the following results. There were no pulsation artifacts (0/16), and 1 case with heterogeneous fat saturation (1/16) was seen on 3D-NERVE. There were no pulsation artifacts (0/16), and 5 cases with heterogeneous fat saturation (5/16) were seen on 3D-STIR. 3D-NERVE performed better (P < .05) for nerve-to-fat and nerve-to-muscle ratios compared with 3D-STIR, and no significant difference in the muscle-to-fat ratio (P > .05). The 3D-NERVE and STIR helped depict 100% (16/16) of the brachial roots and brachial plexus trunk. Brachial plexus bundles and brachial plexus branches were observed in 93.75% (15/16) and 68.75% (11/16) of the 3D-NERVE and 93.75% (15/16) and 62.5% (10/16) of the 3D-STIR, respectively. The differences were not statistically significant (P > .05). Conclusion: Nerve trauma was better visualized with the 3D-NERVE, which is an effective adjunct to electromyography for doctors to assess brachial plexus injury and consequently helps in better treatment planning.

The diagnostic utility of inspiratory-expiratory radiography for the assessment of phrenic nerve palsy associated with brachial plexus injury.

BACKGROUND: The phrenic nerve is commonly injured with trauma to the brachial plexus. Hemi-diaphragmatic paralysis may be well-compensated in healthy individuals at rest but can be associated with persistent exercise intolerance in some patients. This study aims to determine the diagnostic value of inspiratory-expiratory chest radiography compared to intraoperative stimulation of the phrenic nerve for assessing phrenic nerve injury associated with brachial plexus injury. METHODS: Over a 21-year period, the diagnostic utility of three-view inspiratory-expiratory chest radiography for identification of phrenic nerve injury was determined by comparison to intraoperative phrenic nerve stimulation. Multivariate regression analysis was used to identify independent predictors of phrenic nerve injury and having an incorrect radiographic diagnosis. RESULTS: A total of 237 patients with inspiratory-expiratory chest radiography underwent intraoperative testing of phrenic nerve function. Phrenic nerve injury was present in approximately one-fourth of cases. Preoperative chest radiography had a sensitivity of 56%, specificity of 93%, positive predictive negative of 75%, and negative predictive value of 86% for identification of a phrenic nerve palsy. Only C5 avulsion was found to be a predictor of having an incorrect diagnosis of phrenic nerve injury on radiography. CONCLUSION: While inspiratory-expiratory chest radiography has good specificity for detecting phrenic nerve injuries, a high number of false negatives suggest that it should not be relied upon for routine screening of dysfunction after traumatic brachial plexus injury. This is likely multifactorial and relates to variation in diaphragm shape and position, as well as limitations regarding static image interpretation of a dynamic process.

Muscle assessment in brachial plexus injury: A reliability study.

PURPOSE: Motor outcome following a brachial plexus injury is frequently measured to evaluate the success of surgical interventions. We aimed to identify whether the manual muscle testing using the Medical Research Council (MRC) method in adults with C5/6/7 motor weakness was reliable and whether its results correlated with functional recovery. METHODS: Two experienced clinicians examined 30 adults with C5/6/7 weakness following proximal nerve injury. The examination included using the modified MRC to assess motor outcome in the upper limb. Kappa statistics were calculated to evaluate inter-tester reliability. Correlation coefficients was calculated to explore the correlation between the MRC and the Disabilities of the Arm Shoulder and Hand (DASH) score and each EQ5D domain. RESULTS: We found that grades 3-5 of the modified and unmodified MRC motor rating scales have poor inter-rater reliability when assessing C5/6/7 innervated muscles in adults with a proximal nerve injury. The Deltoid Posterior and the Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus were the only muscles (using the modified MRC) to achieve a Kappa over 0.6 indicating substantial reliability. Higher combined MRC scores correlated significantly with a lower DASH and vice versa. Similarly, higher combined scores of MRC correlated significantly with a higher rating of overall health on the EQ5D VAS. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that the MRC motor rating scale has poor inter-rater reliability when assessing C5/C6/C7 innervated muscles in adults following proximal nerve injury. Other methods of assessing motor outcome following proximal nerve injury need to be considered.

Catastrophic Health Care Expenditure Following Brachial Plexus Injury.

PURPOSE: Brachial plexus injuries (BPIs) are devastating to patients not only functionally but also financially. Like patients experiencing other traumatic injuries and unexpected medical events, patients with BPIs are at risk of catastrophic health expenditure (CHE) in which out-of-pocket health spending exceeds 40% of postsubsistence income (income remaining after food and housing expenses). The individual financial strain after BPIs has not been previously quantified. The purpose of this study was to assess the proportion of patients with BPIs who experience risk of CHE after reconstructive surgery. METHODS: Administrative databases were used from 8 states to identify patients who underwent surgery for BPIs. Demographics including age, sex, race, and insurance payer type were obtained. Inpatient billing records were used to determine the total surgical and inpatient facility costs within 90 days after the initial surgery. Due to data constraints, further analysis was only conducted for privately-insured patients. The proportion of patients with BPIs at risk of CHE was recorded. Predictors of CHE risk were determined from a multivariable regression analysis. RESULTS: Among 681 privately-insured patients undergoing surgery for BPIs, nearly one-third (216 [32%]) were at risk of CHE. Black race and patients aged between 25 and 39 years were significant risk factors associated with CHE. Sex and the number of comorbidities were not associated with risk of CHE. CONCLUSIONS: Nearly one-third of privately-insured patients met the threshold for being at risk of CHE after BPI surgery. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Identifying those patients at risk of CHE can inform strategies to minimize long-term financial distress after BPIs, including detailed counseling regarding anticipated health care expenditures and efforts to optimize access to appropriate insurance policies for patients with BPIs.

Impact of simulation training on the management of shoulder dystocia and incidence of permanent brachial plexus birth injury: An observational study.

OBJECTIVE: To study the impact of shoulder dystocia (SD) simulation training on the management of SD and the incidence of permanent brachial plexus birth injury (BPBI). DESIGN: Retrospective observational study. SETTING: Helsinki University Women's Hospital, Finland. SAMPLE: Deliveries with SD. METHODS: Multi-professional, regular and systematic simulation training for obstetric emergencies began in 2015, and SD was one of the main themes. A study was conducted to assess changes in SD management and the incidence of permanent BPBI. The study period was from 2010 to 2019; years 2010-2014 were considered the pre-training period and years 2015-2019 were considered the post-training period. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome measure was the incidence of permanent BPBI after the implementation of systematic simulation training. Changes in the management of SD were also analysed. RESULTS: During the study period, 113 085 vertex deliveries were recorded. The incidence of major SD risk factors (gestational diabetes, induction of labour, vacuum extraction) increased and was significantly higher for each of these factors during the post-training period (p < 0.001). The incidence of SD also increased significantly (0.01% vs 0.3%, p < 0.001) during the study period, but the number of children with permanent BPBI decreased by 55% after the implementation of systematic simulation training (0.05% vs 0.02%, p < 0.001). The most significant change in the management of SD was the increased incidence of successful delivery of the posterior arm. CONCLUSIONS: Systematic simulation-based training of midwives and doctors can translate into improved individual and team performance and can significantly reduce the incidence of permanent BPBI.

Validity and Reliability of Wearable Motion Sensors for Clinical Assessment of Shoulder Function in Brachial Plexus Birth Injury.

The modified Mallet scale (MMS) is commonly used to grade shoulder function in brachial plexus birth injury (BPBI) but has limited sensitivity and cannot grade scapulothoracic and glenohumeral mobility. This study aims to evaluate if the addition of a wearable inertial movement unit (IMU) system could improve clinical assessment based on MMS. The system validity was analyzed with simultaneous measurements with the IMU system and an optical camera system in three asymptomatic individuals. Test-retest and interrater reliability were analyzed in nine asymptomatic individuals and six BPBI patients. IMUs were placed on the upper arm, forearm, scapula, and thorax. Peak angles, range of motion, and average joint angular speed in the shoulder, scapulothoracic, glenohumeral, and elbow joints were analyzed during mobility assessments and MMS tasks. In the validity tests, clusters of reflective markers were placed on the sensors. The validity was high with an error standard deviation below 3.6°. Intraclass correlation coefficients showed that 90.3% of the 69 outcome scores showed good-to-excellent test-retest reliability, and 41% of the scores gave significant differences between BPBI patients and controls with good-to-excellent test-retest reliability. The interrater reliability was moderate to excellent, implying that standardization is important if the patient is followed-up longitudinally.

Clinical Assessment of Functional Recovery Following Nerve Transfer for Traumatic Brachial Plexus Injuries.

Surgical reconstruction and postoperative rehabilitation are both important for restoring function in patients with traumatic brachial plexus injuries (BPIs). The current study aimed to understand variations in recovery progression among patients with different injury levels after receiving the nerve transfer methods. A total of 26 patients with BPIs participated in a rehabilitation training program over 6 months after nerve reconstruction. The differences between the first and second evaluations and between C5-C6 and C5-C7 BPIs were compared. Results showed significant improvements in elbow flexion range (p = 0.001), British Medical Research Council's score of shoulder flexion (p = 0.046), shoulder abduction (p = 0.013), shoulder external rotation (p = 0.020), quantitative muscle strength, and grip strength at the second evaluation for both groups. C5-C6 BPIs patients showed a larger shoulder flexion range (p = 0.022) and greater strength of the shoulder rotator (p = 0.004), elbow flexor (p = 0.028), elbow extensor (p = 0.041), wrist extensor (p = 0.001), and grip force (p = 0.045) than C5-C7 BPIs patients at the second evaluation. Our results indicated different improvements among patients according to injury levels, with quantitative values assisting in establishing goals for interventions.

Assessment of approaches to estimate scapular orientation in children with brachial plexus birth injury.

BACKGROUND: Challenges in measuring dynamic scapular orientation limit assessment of scapulothoracic and glenohumeral contributions to shoulder function in children with brachial plexus birth injury (BPBI). Double calibration acromion marker cluster (D-AMC) and linear model approaches have been validated to estimate scapular motion in healthy adults, but neither has been evaluated in BPBI. RESEARCH QUESTION: Are the linear model and D-AMC approaches able to accurately estimate scapular orientation in children with BPBI at functional arm postures? METHODS: Seventeen children with BPBI positioned their affected limbs in 11 static positions while their segment orientations were measured with motion capture. Linear model and D-AMC estimates of scapular orientation were compared against palpation at six of the static positions with functional relevance to BPBI using a three-way repeat measures ANOVA and a comparison of root mean square errors (RMSE) against literature AMC values for healthy adults. RESULTS: The D-AMC was similar to palpation across all positions and scapular axes while the linear model differed from palpation in a few instances. RMSEs of the D-AMC (3.7-14.8°) and particularly the linear model (4.6-24.8°) were generally at or beyond the upper range of past AMC analyses on healthy adults (1.6-14.2°), especially for more complex, multiplanar arm postures. Despite the D-AMC outperforming the linear model, this approach still produced clinically meaningful (>10°) errors for roughly (12.7-22.5%) of subjects. SIGNIFICANCE: Current methods for estimating dynamic scapular orientation remain less than ideal for BPBI. Use of the D-AMC may be appropriate to gain broad insights into general dynamic scapulothoracic and glenohumeral function; however, given their potential for producing clinically meaningful errors, the D-AMC and linear model are not recommended for diagnostic purposes or outcomes assessment on an individual patient basis unless their patient-specific accuracy has been evaluated and confirmed prior to use.

Validity of range of motion, muscle strength, sensitivity, and Tinel sign tele-assessment in adults with traumatic brachial plexus injury.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic and the need for social distancing created challenges for accessing and providing health services. Telemedicine enables prompt evaluation of patients with traumatic brachial plexus injury, even at a distance, without prejudice to the prognosis. The present study aimed to verify the validity of range of motion, muscle strength, sensitivity, and Tinel sign tele-assessment in adults with traumatic brachial plexus injury (TBPI). METHODS: A cross-sectional study of twenty-one men and women with TBPI admitted for treatment at a Rehabilitation Hospital Network was conducted. The participants were assessed for range of motion, muscle strength, sensitivity, and Tinel sign at two moments: in-person assessment (IPA) and tele-assessment (TA). RESULTS: The TA muscle strength tests presented significant and excellent correlations with the IPA (the intra-rater intraclass correlation coefficient, ICC ranged between 0.79 and 1.00 depending on the muscle tested). The agreement between the TA and IPA range of motion tests ranged from substantial to moderate (weighted kappa coefficient of 0.47-0.76 (p < 0.05) depending on the joint), and the kappa coefficient did not indicate a statistically significant agreement in the range of motion tests of supination, wrist flexors, shoulder flexors, and shoulder external rotators. The agreement between the IPA andTA sensitivity tests of all innervations ranged from substantial to almost perfect (weighted kappa coefficient 0.61-0.83, p < 0.05) except for the C5 innervation, where the kappa coefficient did not indicate a statistically significant agreement. The IPA versus TA Tinel sign test showed a moderate agreement (weighted kappa coefficient of 0.57, p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The present study demonstrated that muscle strength tele-assessment is valid in adults with TBPI and presented a strong agreement for many components of TA range of motion, sensitivity, and Tinel sign tests.

Preoperative imaging assessment of the paralytic upper limb.

Imaging has become an essential tool in the study of the posttraumatic paralytic upper limb, in addition to the clinical examination and electroneuromyography. Upper extremity surgeons must be aware of how these different techniques contribute to the initial and preoperative assessment of nervous injuries. We review the appearance of traumatic nerve damage and muscle denervation during the initial injury assessment, focusing on the main aspects of brachial plexus injuries, paralysis after shoulder dislocation and traumatic damage to the radial nerve. Finally, we discuss the role of imaging for preoperative assessment of musculotendinous and osteoarticular palliative surgeries.

Assessment of the relationship between Brachial Plexus Profile activity short form scores and modified Mallet scores.

INTRODUCTION: This study aims to assess the relationship between the modified Mallet classification and the Brachial Plexus Profile activity short form (BP-PRO activity SF). The therapist or surgeon classifies upper extremity movement for the modified Mallet classification, while the BP-PRO assesses parents' perceptions of difficulty performing activities. PURPOSE: To provide a deeper understanding of the relationship of functional and perceived outcome measurements. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, correlational design. METHODS: Eighty children with brachial plexus birth injuries were evaluated using the modified Mallet classification, while parents simultaneously answered the BP-PRO activity SF questions. All patients had undergone one of three surgical interventions to improve shoulder function. The relationship between the two measures, patient injury levels, and surgical histories were assessed. RESULTS: The average modified Mallet scores and BP-PRO activity SF scores weakly correlated (r = 0.312, P = .005) and both measures differentiated between C5-6 and C5-7 injury levels (P = .03 and P = .02, respectively). Conversely, the modified Mallet scores could differentiate between the three surgical groups (F = 8.2, P < .001), while the BP-PRO activity SF could not (P = .54). CONCLUSION: The results suggest that these tools measure different aspects of patient outcomes. The Mallet classification may be more focused on shoulder motion than the BP-PRO activity SF. Additional questions that specifically require shoulder function could be incorporated into the BP-PRO activity SF to improve understanding of patient/parent perceptions of shoulder function for children with brachial plexus injuries. Clinicians should be aware of the strengths, weaknesses, and limitations of each outcome assessment tool for appropriate use and interpretation of results.

Histopathological nerve assessment in brachial plexus birth injuries.

In children suffering from brachial plexus birth injuries (BPBI), one major difficulty concerns intraoperative selection of the roots to be used for reconstruction. Between November 2018 and August 2020, surgical qualitative evaluations and pathological quantitative analyses were conducted on 52 roots and 29 distal neural stumps (trunks, divisions, cords, and nerves distal to the neuroma) in 17 patients who underwent brachial plexus reconstruction. For each root, surgeons rated stump quality as "good", "fair" or "avulsed". Neural sections were then sent to pathology to determine percentage intraneural fibrosis under microscopy. Mean root intraneural fibrosis rates were 30.5% (SD 24.9; range, 0-80%), 46.3% (SD 32.6; range, 0-90%) and 24.6% (SD 23.5; range, 0-80%) in the "good quality", "fair quality" and "avulsed" groups, respectively, with no significant differences between groups. In distal neural stumps, the mean intraneural fibrosis rate was 30.9% (SD 24.7). These findings raise the question of conducting frozen section biopsy of neural stumps after neuroma resection to determine surgical reconstruction strategy.

Plunging Dangerously: A Quantitative Assessment of Drilling the Clavicle.

Bicortical drilling of the clavicle is associated with risk of iatrogenic damage from plunging given the close proximity of neurovascular structures. This study determined plunge depth during superior-to-inferior clavicle drilling using a standard drill vs drill-sensing technology. Two orthopedic surgeons drilled 10 holes in a fresh cadaveric clavicle with drill-sensing technology in freehand mode (functions as standard orthopedic drill) and another 10 holes with drill-sensing technology in bicortical mode (drill motor stops when the second cortex is breached and depth is measured in real time). The drill-measured depths were compared with computed tomography-measured depths. Distances to the neurovascular structures were also measured. The surgeons' plunge depths were compared using an independent t test. With freehand (standard) drilling, the mean plunge depth was 8.8 mm. For surgeon 1, the range was 5.6 to 15.8 mm (mean, 10.9 mm). For surgeon 2, the range was 3.3 to 11.0 mm (mean, 6.4 mm). The surgeons' plunge depths were significantly different. In bicortical mode, the drill motor stopped when the second cortex was penetrated. Drill-measured depths were verified by computed tomography scan, with a mean difference of 0.8 mm. Mean distances from the clavicle to the neurovascular structures were 15.5 mm for the subclavian vein, 18.0 mm for the subclavian artery, and 8.0 mm for the brachial plexus. Plunge depths differed between surgeons. However, both surgeons' plunge depths were greater than distances to the neurovascular structures, indicating a risk of injury due to plunging. Although a nonspinning drill bit may still cause soft tissue damage, drill-sensing technology may decrease the risk of penetrating soft tissue structures due to plunging. [Orthopedics. 2021;44(1):e36-e42.].

Health-care use and information needs of children with neonatal brachial plexus palsy: A cross-sectional survey among 465 Dutch patients.

To investigate health-care use (HCU) and information needs of children aged 0-18 years with neonatal brachial plexus palsy (NBPP), a cross-sectional study was performed. Patients and/or parents seen in our NBPP clinic were invited to complete a survey comprising questions on HCU due to NBPP and current information needs. Outcomes were described for three age-groups (0-1/2-9/10-18 years), based on follow-up status (early/late/no-discharge). Four hundred sixty-five parents/patients participated (59 in the 0-1, 226 in the 2-9, and 180 in the 10-18-year group). Two hundred ninety-three patients had C5-C6 lesions, 193 were discharged from follow-up, 83 of whom categorized as 'early discharged' (<1 year of age). Over the past year, 198 patients had contact with the expert team (49 in the 0-1, 81 in the 2-9, and 68 in the 10-18-year group) and 288 with at least one other health-care professional (53 in the 0-1, 133 in the 2-9, and 102 in the 10-18-year group). Of the 83 patients discharged early, 34 reported health-care use. Two hundred twenty-eight participants reported current information needs of whom 23 were discharged early. HCU and information needs of Dutch children with NBPP remains considerable even in children who were discharged. Stricter follow-up and information provision for these patients is needed.

The Epidemiology of Upper Extremity Nerve Injuries and Associated Cost in the US Emergency Departments.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of our study was to determine the incidence and average cost of nerve injuries in patients presenting with upper extremity trauma. METHODS: The Nationwide Emergency Department Sample database was queried using International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision codes specific to peripheral nerve injuries of the upper extremity. Data on the incidence, patient demographics, average number of associated diagnoses, Injury Severity Scale (ISS) score, mechanism of injury, and average cost of care were collected and analyzed. RESULTS: Of 1.58 million upper extremity traumatic injuries, there were 5244 nerve injuries, resulting in an annual incidence of 16.9 per 100,000 persons with an average age of 38.42 years. Ulnar nerve injuries were the most common (3.86 per 100,000) followed by digital nerve (2.96 per 100,000), radial nerve (2.90 per 100,000), and median nerve (2.01 per 100,000). Injuries to the brachial plexus had the highest average ISS score (9.79 ± 0.71) and number of presenting diagnoses (8.85 ± 0.61) while having a lower than average emergency department (ED) cost. Patients with digital nerve injuries had the highest average ED cost ($8931.01 ± $847.03), whereas their ISS score (2.82 ± 0.19) and number of presenting diagnoses (4.92 ± 0.22) were the lowest. The most commonly reported mechanism of injury in this study population was from a laceration (29.2%) followed by blunt injury, fall (14.8%), and being struck (7.20%). Males were 2.14 (2.01-2.28) times more likely to have an injury to an upper extremity nerve and 3.25 (2.79-3.79) times more likely to injure a digital nerve. CONCLUSIONS: While there was a low incidence of upper extremity nerve injuries associated with upper extremity trauma, the ulnar nerve was most frequently injured. Males were twice as likely to sustain a traumatic upper extremity nerve injury, with laceration being the most common mechanism of injury. The average ED cost associated with upper extremity nerve injuries in the United States was determined to be approximately $5779.

Indirect Cost of Traumatic Brachial Plexus Injuries in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Traumatic brachial plexus injuries (BPIs) disproportionately affect young, able-bodied individuals. Beyond direct costs associated with medical treatment, there are far-reaching indirect costs related to disability and lost productivity. Our objective was to estimate per-patient indirect cost associated with BPI. METHODS: We estimated indirect costs as the sum of (1) short-term wage loss, (2) long-term wage loss, and (3) disability payments. Short-term (6-month) wage loss was the product of missed work days and the average earnings per day. The probability of return to work was derived from a systematic review of the literature, and long-term wage loss and disability payments were estimated. Monte Carlo simulation was used to perform a sensitivity analysis of long-term wage loss by varying age, sex, and return to work simultaneously. Disability benefits were estimated from U.S. Social Security Administration data. All cost estimates are in 2018 U.S. dollars. RESULTS: A systematic review of the literature demonstrated that the patients with BPI had a mean age of 26.4 years, 90.5% were male, and manual labor was the most represented occupation. On the basis on these demographics, our base case was a 26-year-old American man working as a manual laborer prior to BPI, with an annual wage of $36,590. Monte Carlo simulation estimated a short-term wage loss of $22,740, a long-term wage loss of $737,551, and disability benefits of $353,671. The mean total indirect cost of traumatic BPI in the Monte Carlo simulations was $1,113,962 per patient over the post-injury lifetime (median: $801,723, interquartile range: $22,740 to $2,350,979). If the probability of the patient returning to work at a different, lower-paying job was doubled, the per-patient total indirect cost was $867,987. CONCLUSIONS: BPI can have a far-reaching economic impact on both individuals and society. If surgical reconstruction enables patients with a BPI to return to work, the indirect cost of this injury decreases. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Economic Level IV. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

An assessment of fatigability following nerve transfer to reinnervate elbow flexor muscles.

AIMS: Improvements in the evaluation of outcomes following peripheral nerve injury are needed. Recent studies have identified muscle fatigue as an inevitable consequence of muscle reinnervation. This study aimed to quantify and characterize muscle fatigue within a standardized surgical model of muscle reinnervation. PATIENTS AND METHODS: This retrospective cohort study included 12 patients who underwent Oberlin nerve transfer in an attempt to restore flexion of the elbow following brachial plexus injury. There were ten men and two women with a mean age of 45.5 years (27 to 69). The mean follow-up was 58 months (28 to 100). Repeated and sustained isometric contractions of the elbow flexors were used to assess fatigability of reinnervated muscle. The strength of elbow flexion was measured using a static dynamometer (KgF) and surface electromyography (sEMG). Recordings were used to quantify and characterize fatigability of the reinnervated elbow flexor muscles compared with the uninjured contralateral side. RESULTS: The mean peak force of elbow flexion was 7.88 KgF (sd 3.80) compared with 20.65 KgF (sd 6.88) on the contralateral side (p < 0.001). Reinnervated elbow flexor muscles (biceps brachialis) showed sEMG evidence of fatigue earlier than normal controls with sustained (60-second) isometric contraction. Reinnervated elbow flexor muscles also showed a trend towards a faster twitch muscle fibre type. CONCLUSION: The assessment of motor outcomes must involve more than peak force alone. Reinnervated muscle shows a shift towards fast twitch fibres following reinnervation with an earlier onset of fatigue. Our findings suggest that fatigue is a clinically relevant characteristic of reinnervated muscle. Adoption of these metrics into clinical practice and the assessment of outcome could allow a more meaningful comparison to be made between differing forms of treatment and encourage advances in the management of motor recovery following nerve transfer. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2019;101-B:867-871.