Congenital anomalies in the offspring of occupationally exposed mothers: a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies using expert assessment for occupational exposures.

STUDY QUESTION: Is there an association between maternal occupational exposure to solvents, pesticides and metals as assessed by expert-based assessment and congenital anomalies in the offspring? SUMMARY ANSWER: There is an association between maternal occupational exposure to solvents and congenital anomalies in the offspring, including neural tube defects, congenital heart defects and orofacial clefts. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: One important environmental risk factor for development of congenital anomalies is maternal occupational exposure to chemicals in the workplace prior to and during pregnancy. A number of studies have assessed the association with often conflicting results, possibly due to different occupational exposure assessing methods. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION: For this systematic review with meta-analysis, the search terms included maternal occupation, exposure, congenital anomalies and offspring. Electronic databases MEDLINE and EMBASE were searched for English studies up to October 2017. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS: Two reviewers independently screened all citations identified by the search. Case-control studies and cohort studies were included if (I) they reported on the association between maternal occupational exposure to solvents, pesticides or metals and congenital anomalies, and (II) assessment of occupational exposure was performed by experts. Data on study characteristics, confounders and odds ratios (ORs) were extracted from the included studies for four subgroups of congenital anomalies. Methodological quality was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. In the meta-analysis, random effects models were used to pool estimates. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: In total, 2806 titles and abstracts and 176 full text papers were screened. Finally, 28 studies met the selection criteria, and 27 studies could be included in the meta-analysis. Our meta-analysis showed that maternal occupational exposure to solvents was associated with neural tube defects (OR: 1.51, 95%CI: 1.09-2.09) and congenital heart defects (OR: 1.31, 95%CI:1.06-1.63) in the offspring. Also maternal occupational exposure to glycol ethers, a subgroup of solvents, was associated with neural tube defects (OR: 1.93, 95%CI: 1.17-3.18) and orofacial clefts (OR: 1.95, 95%CI: 1.38-2.75) in the offspring. Only one study investigated the association between maternal occupational exposure to solvents and hypospadias and found an association (OR: 3.63, 95%CI: 1.94-7.17). Results of the included studies were consistent. In our meta-analysis, we found no associations between occupational exposure to pesticides or metals and congenital anomalies in the offspring. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION: A limited number of studies was included, which made it impossible to calculate pooled estimates for all congenital anomalies, analyse individual chemicals or calculate exposure-response relations. Bias could have been introduced because not all included studies corrected for potentially confounding factors. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: Employers and female employees should be aware of the possible teratogenic effects of solvent exposure at the workplace. Therefore, is it important that clinicians and occupational health specialist provide women with preconception advice on occupational solvent exposure, to reduce the congenital anomaly risk. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S): NSp was paid by the Graduate School of Medical Sciences (MD/PhD program), UMCG, Groningen, the Netherlands. EUROCAT Northern Netherlands is funded by the Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sports. There are no competing interests. REGISTRATION NUMBER: CRD42017053943.

Perspective: regulation of pest and disease control strategies and why (many) economists are concerned.

Pests and diseases are a continuous challenge in agriculture production. A wide range of control strategies have been and will continue to be developed. New control strategies are in almost all countries around the world assessed prior to approval for use in farmers' fields. This is rightly so to avoid and even reduce negative effects for human health and the environment. Over the past decades the approval processes have become increasingly politicized resulting in an increase in the direct approval costs and the length in approval time without increasing the safety of the final product. This reduces the development of control strategies and often has negative human health and environmental effects. Possibilities exist for improvements. They include reducing approval costs and approval time by streamlining the approval process and substituting approval requirements by strengthening ex-post liability. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Why Regulators Lost Track and Control of Pesticide Risks: Lessons From the Case of Glyphosate-Based Herbicides and Genetically Engineered-Crop Technology.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The approval of genetically engineered (GE) crops in the late 1990s triggered dramatic changes in corn, soybean, and cotton pest management systems, as well as complex, novel regulatory challenges. Lessons learned are reviewed and solutions described. RECENT FINDINGS: Government-imposed resistance management provisions can work and adapt to changing circumstances, but within the private sector, pressures to gain and hold market share have thus far trumped the widely recognized need for resistance management. Risks arising from the use of formulated pesticides often exceed by a wide margin those in regulatory risk assessments based on data derived from studies on nearly 100% pure active ingredients. Innovative policy changes are needed in four problem areas: excessive faith in the accuracy of pre-market risk assessments and regulatory thresholds; post-approval monitoring of actual impacts; risk arising from formulated pesticides, rather than just pure active ingredient; challenges inherent in assessing and mitigating the combined impacts of all GE traits and associated pesticides on agroecosystems, as opposed to each trait or pesticide alone; and, tools to deal with failing pest management systems.

Introducing relative potency quotient approach associated with probabilistic cumulative risk assessment to derive soil standards for pesticide mixtures.

Children can be exposed to organophosphate and carbamate mixtures, which pose additive health effects via soil exposure. However, only 23 countries have soil standard values for organophosphate and carbamate pesticides, and most regulatory jurisdictions do not consider the cumulative exposure. This study derived proposed soil standards for organophosphates and carbamates by introducing the relative potency quotient approach (RPQ). The probabilistic cumulative risk assessment was also applied to evaluate current soil standards of pesticide mixtures. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have soil standards of 19 organophosphates and five carbamates. However, these standards cannot protect population health via chronic exposure in conservative and semi-conservative scenarios based on the probabilistic risk assessment because the U.S.EPA simplified the regulatory process for the cumulative exposure to pesticide mixtures and omitted the soil allocation factor, which should be set for aggregate exposure. The analysis of proposed soil standards developed by the RPQ approach indicates that some human behavior variables, such as soil intake rate and exposure duration, have stronger impacts on the proposed soil standards than human biometric variables like body weight. This study may be helpful to develop regulatory standards and a framework for pesticide mixtures having additive health effects.

Persistent organochlorine pesticides in aquatic environments and fishes in Taiwan and their risk assessment.

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are ubiquitous contaminants with high bioaccumulation and persistence in the environment; they can have adverse effects in humans and animals. This study examined residual concentrations in water, sediments, and fishes as well as the association between the health risks of OCPs and fish consumption in the Taiwanese population. Various water and sediment samples from Taiwanese aquaculture and fish samples from different sources were collected and analyzed through gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry to determine the concentrations of 20 OCPs, namely, aldrin; cis-chlordane; trans-chlordane; dieldrin; endrin; alpha-endosulfan; beta-endosulfan; heptachlor; hexachlorobenzene; alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane; beta-hexachlorocyclohexane; lindane; mirex; pentachlorobenzene; o,p'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT); p,p'-DDT; and DDT metabolites (o,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane [DDD]; p,p'-DDD; o,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene [DDE]; and p,p'-DDE). None of the analyzed samples was positive for OCP contamination, suggesting no new input pollution from the land through washing into Taiwanese aquaculture environments. However, OCP residues were detected in fishes caught along the coast, namely, skipjack tuna and bigeye barracuda, and in imported fishes, such as codfish and salmon. DDT was the predominant pesticide. The contamination pattern of persistent organic pollutants was as follows: dieldrin > cis-chlordane > hexachlorobenzene, with average concentrations ranging from 0.09 to 2.74 ng/g. The risk was assessed in terms of the estimated daily intake (EDI) for potential adverse indices; the EDI of OCP residues was lower than 1% of the acceptable daily intake established by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and World Health Organization. The assessed risk was negligible and considered to be at a safe level, suggesting no association between fish consumption and risks to human health in Taiwan. However, a continuous monitoring program for OCP residues in fishes is necessary to further assess the possible effects on human health.

Combined ecotoxicological risk assessment in the frame of European authorization of pesticides.

Organisms are frequently exposed to mixtures of chemical contaminants in the environment, causing a potential "cocktail effect", or combined effect. The joint action of different molecules with similar or different modes of action could result in a potentially unlimited number of additives, synergistic or antagonistic combinations. Since the large number of contaminants makes it impossible to perform ecotoxicity tests for each potential mixture, a robust approach for prospective environmental risk assessment of chemical mixtures is needed. A number of recent publications by the European Commission and the authorities in charge prove the increasing interest that is spreading in the European community towards the topic of the assessment of chemical mixtures. The current EU regulation for Plant Protection Products authorization (Reg. 1107/2009 EC) explicitly requires the evaluation of the potential combined effects of active substances. We reviewed current methods and limitations of mixture assessment of pesticides (7 fungicides and 4 herbicides) through the analysis of the approaches adopted to investigate possible risks for different non-target organisms. The Concentration Addition (CA) approach was the most used approach to predict multiple toxicity to non-target organisms. The guidance for birds and mammals first introduced standard procedures to assess the multiple toxicity based on on CA concept. The recent aquatic EFSA guidance introduced some requirements to evaluate potential mixture toxicity, while the current guidance requirements for terrestrial organisms still lack clear indications on how to conduct the assessment. Moreover, new indications come from the draft guidance for the assessment of terrestrial plants and in-soil organisms. However, the approval and implementation of these new guidelines are still at a developmental stage. Some final considerations are drawn on the future possibilities to improve risk assessment procedures so as to identify harmful effects of pesticides mixtures on non-target organisms.

A tiered assessment framework to evaluate human health risk of contaminated sediment.

For sediment contaminated with bioaccumulative pollutants (e.g., PCBs and organochorine pesticides), human consumption of seafood that contain bioaccumulated sediment-derived contaminants is a well-established exposure pathway. Historically, regulation and management of this bioaccumulation pathway has focused on site-specific risk assessment. The state of California (United States) is supporting the development of a consistent and quantitative sediment assessment framework to aid in interpreting a narrative objective to protect human health. The conceptual basis of this framework focuses on 2 key questions: 1) do observed pollutant concentrations in seafood from a given site pose unacceptable health risks to human consumers? and 2) is sediment contamination at a site a significant contributor to seafood contamination? The first question is evaluated by interpreting seafood tissue concentrations at the site, based on health risk calculations. The second question is evaluated by interpreting site-specific sediment chemistry data using a food web bioaccumulation model. The assessment framework includes 3 tiers (screening assessment, site assessment, and refined site assessment), which enables the assessment to match variations in data availability, site complexity, and study objectives. The second and third tiers use a stochastic simulation approach, incorporating information on variability and uncertainty of key parameters, such as seafood contaminant concentration and consumption rate by humans. The framework incorporates site-specific values for sensitive parameters and statewide values for difficult to obtain or less sensitive parameters. The proposed approach advances risk assessment policy by incorporating local data into a consistent region-wide problem formulation, applying best available science in a streamlined fashion.

Risk assessment of 'endocrine substances': guidance on identifying endocrine disruptors.

The European regulation on plant protection products (1107/2009) and other related legislation only support the marketing and use of chemical products on the basis that they do not induce endocrine disruption in humans or wildlife species. This legislation would appear to make the assumption that endocrine active chemicals should be managed differently from other chemicals presumably due to an assumed lack of a threshold for adverse effects. In the absence of agreed scientific criteria and guidance on how to identify and evaluate endocrine activity and disruption within these pieces of legislation, a European Centre for Ecotoxicology and Toxicology of Chemicals (ECETOC) task force was formed to provide scientific criteria that may be used within the context of these three legislative documents. The first ECETOC technical report and associated workshop, held in 2009, presented a science-based concept on how to identify endocrine activity and disrupting properties of chemicals for both human health and the environment. Specific scientific criteria for the determination of endocrine activity and disrupting properties that integrate information from both regulatory toxicity studies and mechanistic/screening studies were proposed. These criteria combined the nature of the adverse effects detected in studies which give concern for endocrine toxicity with an understanding of the mode of action of toxicity so that adverse effects can be explained scientifically. A key element in the data evaluation is the consideration of all available information in a weight-of-evidence approach. Both sets of data (evidence of the adverse effect in apical studies and conclusive mode of action knowledge) are essential in order to correctly identify endocrine disruption according to accepted definitions. As the legislation seeks to regulate chemicals on a mode of action rather than the more traditional approach of adverse endpoints, then conclusive evidence of the mode of action of concern should be presented. From a human safety perspective and in the absence of any compelling data that endocrine active chemicals exert their adverse effects through anything other than a threshold mechanism there is no scientific justification for not using a margin of exposure approach to risk assessment in order to best protect human health.

ECETOC Florence workshop on risk assessment of endocrine substances, including the potency concept.

The European regulation on plant protection products (1107/2009) and the Biocidal Products Regulation (EC Regulation 528/2012) only support the marketing and use of chemicals if they do not cause endocrine disruption in humans or wildlife species. Also, substances with endocrine properties are subject to authorization under the European regulation on the registration, evaluation, authorization and restriction of chemicals (REACH; 1907/2006). Therefore, the regulatory consequences of identifying a substance as an endocrine disrupting chemical are severe. In contrast to that, basic scientific criteria, necessary to define endocrine disrupting properties, are not described in any of these legislative documents. Thus, the European Center for Ecotoxicology and Toxicology of Chemicals (ECETOC) established a task force to provide scientific criteria for the identification and assessment of chemicals with endocrine disrupting properties that may be used within the context of these three legislative texts (ECETOC, 2009a). In 2009, ECETOC introduced a scientific framework as a possible concept for identifying endocrine disrupting properties within a regulatory context (ECETOC, 2009b; Bars et al., 2011a,b). The proposed scientific criteria integrated, in a weight of evidence approach, information from regulatory (eco)toxicity studies and mechanistic/screening studies by combining evidence for adverse effects detected in apical whole-organism studies with an understanding of the mode of action (MoA) of endocrine toxicity. However, since not all chemicals with endocrine disrupting properties are of equal hazard, an adequate concept should also be able to differentiate between chemicals with endocrine properties of low concern from those of higher concern (for regulatory purposes). For this purpose, the task force refined this part of their concept. Following an investigation of the key factors at a second workshop of invited regulatory, academic and industry scientists, the guidance was advanced further. For human health assessments it is based on the relevance to humans of the endocrine mechanism of toxicity, the specificity of the endocrine effects with respect to other toxic effects, the potency of the chemical to induce endocrine toxicity and consideration of exposure levels.

Economic and policy issues of U.S. agricultural pesticide use trends.

BACKGROUND: This paper discusses U.S. agricultural pesticide use trends from 1964 to 2010 based on estimates developed from USDA surveys, and the influence of economic factors, agricultural policy, and pesticide regulation on aggregate quantities and mix of pesticides used. RESULTS: Synthetic organic pesticide use grew dramatically from the 1960s to the early 1980s, as farmers treated more and more acreage. Use then stabilized, with herbicides applied to about 95% of corn, cotton, and soybean acres, annually. Subsequently, major factors affecting trends were: (1) changes in crop acreage and other economic factors, (2) use of new pesticides that reduced per-acre application rates and/or met more rigorous health and environmental standards, and (3) adoption of genetically engineered insect-resistant and herbicide-tolerant crops. CONCLUSION: The use of pesticides and other control practices responded to economic factors such as input and output markets and agricultural policies. Changing societal values toward pesticide risks and benefits profoundly affected pesticide policy, influencing the pesticides available for use, but only indirectly affecting aggregate quantities used. While the current pesticide regulatory process might have economic inefficiencies, it might be consistent with policy preferences held by much of the public-to reduce pesticide hazards rather than minimize regulatory costs.

Identification, assessment and management of "endocrine disruptors" in wildlife in the EU substance legislation--discussion paper from the German Federal Environment Agency (UBA).

A discussion paper was developed by a panel of experts of the German Federal Environment Agency (UBA) contributing to the on-going debate on the identification, assessment and management of endocrine disruptors with a view to protect wildlife according to the EU substance legislation (plant protection products, biocides, industrial chemicals). Based on a critical synthesis of the state-of-the-art regarding regulatory requirements, testing methods, assessment schemes, decision-making criteria and risk management options, we advise an appropriate and consistent implementation of this important subject into existing chemicals legislation in Europe. Our proposal for a balanced risk management of endocrine disruptors essentially advocates transparent regulatory decision making based on a scientifically robust weight of evidence approach and an adequate risk management consistent across different legislations. With respect to the latter, a more explicit consideration of the principle of proportionality of regulatory decision making and socio-economic benefits in the on-going debate is further encouraged.

[Analysis of the European Directive 98/83/EC: paradigm of the justification and establishment of parametric values. The specific case of pesticides]. / Análisis de la Directiva Europea 98/83/CE: paradigma de la justificación y establecimiento de los valores paramétricos. El caso concreto de los plaguicidas.

The health protection while ensuring the access to safe drinking water to the entire population is one of the main objectives all over the world. In this regard, the European Union, through Directive 98/83/EC, sets the parameters and maximum allowable parametric values to ensure the quality of water intended for human consumption. The aim of this paper is to give an overview of the values established in the European Directive in comparison with other countries and organizations, such as the World Health Organization, based on toxicological justification, doing special mention to the case of pesticides, in which there is great difference between the parametric values set. It also presents a comparison with the values fixed by the Directive 91/414/EEC concerning maximum residue limits of pesticides in food, highlighting the importance of joining criteria.

Comparative analysis of pesticide action plans in five European countries.

BACKGROUND: Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, France and the United Kingdom have launched national initiatives to reduce pesticide use or risk. Faced with multiple environmental, social and economic constraints such as ensuring the competiveness of European agriculture, the various programmes address goal setting, stakeholder involvement and the role of research and extension in different ways. These diverse experiences offer valuable insights for the development of national action plans required by new European legislation on pesticides. RESULTS: The general trend is to move away from volume or use reduction targets towards reductions in risks and impact. All programmes studied pay attention to involving a wide range of stakeholders in the policy-making process to ensure buy-in. Research and extension services are important players that help to define appropriate goals and improve implementation. Collective approaches to implementation appear to be more effective than the classical linear research-extension-farmer model. CONCLUSION: No matter the approach adopted in fine, member states can gain much from sharing their diverse experience through comparisons such as this study and via international policy seminars which serve as valuable forums for exchange.

An integrated approach for bioaccumulation assessment in mussels: towards the development of Environmental Quality Standards for biota.

The possible use of chemical concentrations measured in mussels (Mytillus galloprovincialis) for compliance checking against Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) established for biota is analyzed with the help of an integrated model. The model consists of a 3D planktonic module that provides biomasses in the different compartments, i.e., phytoplankton, zooplankton and bacteria; a 3D fate module that provides the concentrations of contaminants in the water column and in the sediments; and a 3D bioaccumulation module that calculates internal concentrations in relevant biotic compartments. These modules feed a 0D growth and bioaccumulation module for mussels, based on the Dynamic Energy Budget (DEB) approach. The integrated model has been applied to study the bioaccumulation of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the Thau lagoon (France). The model correctly predicts the concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) in mussels as a function of the concentrations in the water column and in phytoplankton. It also sheds light on the origin of the complexity associated with the use of EQS for biota and their conversion to water column concentrations. The integrated model is potentially useful for regulatory purposes, for example in the context of the European Water Framework (WFD) and Marine Strategy Framework Directives (MSFD).

Comments on pesticide risk assessment by the revision of Directive EU 91/414.

INTRODUCTION: Human health and the environment are major concerns for European Commission policy on the authorisation of plant protection products. The new regulation that revises and replaces the directive 91/414/EC moves towards the adoption of a Persistent Bioaccumulation Toxicity cutoff criterion because current pesticide risk assessment (PRA) is deterministic, based on few standard cases and therefore characterised by uncertainty. This revision could create concerns about sustainability. DISCUSSION: This paper analyses some effects of this directive on the agrochemical market and assumes new effects resulting from the introduction of the revision. Suggestions are made as to how pesticide risk assessment will have to adapt to answer the request of legislators on safety standards and sustainability, introducing probabilistic PRA. Toxicity and exposure functions will be fully characterised, producing distributions of predicted impact and quantifying the variability and uncertainty. For adopting PRA studies at the local/catchment scale, new assessment schemes will be necessary.

Monitoring adherence to the international code of conduct: highly hazardous pesticides in central Andean agriculture and farmers' rights to health.

The WHO has advocated monitoring adherence to the Food and Agriculture Organization's Code of Conduct to reduce use of highly hazardous pesticides in lower and middle income countries. We re-framed Code articles in terms of farmers' rights and drew on survey data, farmer focus group results, and direct observations of agrochemical stores in Ecuador and Peru to construct indicators reflecting respect for such rights. Use of highly (Ia and Ib) and moderately (II) hazardous pesticides was common. Worse indicators were observed in places with lower education, greater poverty, and more use of indigenous languages. Limited government enforcement capacity, social irresponsibility of the pesticide industry, and lack of farmers' knowledge of the Code were all factors impeding respect for farmers' rights. Addressing the power imbalance among social actors requires informed farmer and farmworker participation in monitoring adherence and active involvement of non-governmental organizations and municipal governments.

National GLP programmes and implication of regulatory authorities for pharmaceuticals, pesticides and other chemicals.

There are various kinds of good laboratory practice (GLP) monitoring authorities (MAs) in the world. Some countries have only one MA, while others, including Japan, have more than one MA. In addition, each MA has its own relationship with regulatory authorities (RAs), receiving authorities (RcAs) and industry based on the internal regulatory systems. There are eight GLP MAs in Japan. This number is probably the largest in the world. Efforts have been made to establish a close link among MAs and to apply and implement GLP programmes in an efficient, effective and consistent way, namely: i) interministerial meeting on GLP. It is essential to establish a system for information exchange and decision making when there are a number of MAs such as in Japan. To this end, the interministerial meeting on GLP has been set up as a means for MAs, RAs, and RcAs to share information on Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and foreign countries and make national decisions as a whole country; ii) joint training programme. With the goal of training inspectors and minimizing differences in inspections among MAs, a joint training programme has been started including joint visits to test facilities (TFs) and participation in evaluation committees at other MAs. One of the purposes of this training programme is to get ready for the on-site evaluation visit (OEV) of the OECD by simulating it at MAs in Japan; iii) joint translation programme of the OECD documents. To avoid unnecessary confusion due to differences of interpretation and translation of OECD documents among MAs, these have been translated into Japanese in cooperation with industry. This has also other substantial merits such as cost reduction and time saving for all stakeholders in Japan. Some countries, both members and non-members of the OECD, have also established more than one GLP MA. It is hoped that the Japanese experience can be useful to them.

Risk assessment and management of occupational exposure to pesticides in agriculture.

Nearly 50% of the world labour force is employed in agriculture. Over the last 50 years, agriculture has deeply changed with a massive utilisation of pesticides and fertilisers to enhance crop protection and production, food quality and food preservation. Pesticides are also increasingly employed for public health purposes and for domestic use. Pesticide are unique chemicals as they are intrinsically toxic for several biological targets, are deliberately spread into the environment, and their toxicity has a limited species selectivity. Pesticide toxicity depends on the compound family and is generally greater for the older compounds; in humans, they are responsible for acute poisonings as well as for long term health effects, including cancer and adverse effects on reproduction. Due to their intrinsic toxicity, in most countries a specific and complex legislation prescribes a thorough risk assessment process for pesticides prior to their entrance to the market (pre-marketing risk assessment). The post-marketing risk assessment takes place during the use of pesticides and aims at assessing the risk for exposed operators. The results of the risk assessment are the base for the health surveillance of exposed workers. Occupational exposure to pesticides in agriculture concerns product distributors, mixers and loaders, applicators, bystanders, and rural workers re-entering the fields shortly after treatment. Assessing and managing the occupational health risks posed by the use of pesticides in agriculture is a complex but essential task for occupational health specialists and toxicologists. In spite of the economic and social importance of agriculture, the health protection of agricultural workforce has been overlooked for too many years, causing an heavy tribute paid in terms of avoidable diseases, human sufferance, and economic losses. Particularly in the developing countries, where agricultural work is one of the predominant job, a sustainable model of development calls for more attention to occupational risks in agriculture. The experience of many countries has shown that prevention of health risk caused by pesticides is technically feasible and economically rewarding for the individuals and the whole community. A proper risk assessment and management of pesticide use is an essential component of this preventative