Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a Useful and Low-Cost Tool for Molecular Sexing Psittaciformes under Human Care: An Example of a Collaborative Approach in Mexico.

Sex determination in monomorphic birds is a precondition for captive breeding programs and management and conservation strategies for threatened species. Most species of the order Psittaciformes often present complications since these birds lack external sexual phenotypic traits, making it impossible to differentiate males and females. In the present study, we used molecular techniques to determine the sex of 31 individuals belonging to nine species of the order Psittaciformes kept under human care at the Akumal Monkey Sanctuary & Rescued Animals in Quintana Roo, Mexico. This is a useful and low-cost methodology based on the analysis of the conserved region of the CHD1 gene, which was amplified by PCR with two sets of primers: P8/P2 and 2550F/2718 R. All individuals were successfully sexed with the first set of primers, while only 28 out of 31 samples (90%) could be amplified with the second set. Out of the 31 individuals analyzed, fifteen are female, and seventeen are male. This information represents a handy tool for adequately managing birds under human care, resulting in their reproduction and eventual reintegration into their natural habitat.

Assessment of Non-Contact Infrared Thermometer Measurement Sites in Birds.

The standard method of obtaining body temperature in a bird can be a stressful event, making routine evaluations challenging. Twenty-eight privately owned birds in good health were enrolled in the study to compare digital and infrared (IR) temperature readings. Digital thermometer readings in the cloaca were compared with two different IR thermometers, Ototemp (OT) and VetTemp (VT), used at the skin of the cloaca, breast, axillary area and tympanic membrane. The majority of the IR temperature readings were not significantly different from the cloacal digital reading. Additionally, the different IR thermometers read close to each other at individual reading sites. The IR measurements at the axilla (OT, mean = 40.35°C, SD = 1.24°C; VT, mean = 40.20°C, SD = 1.38°C) were most similar to the standard cloacal measurement (mean = 40.83°C, SD = 0.88°C). For veterinarians who currently avoid measuring cloacal body temperatures to prevent unnecessary stress on avian patients utilizing IR thermometers in the axillary region provide a less invasive and reasonable measurement of core body temperature in birds to allow for a more comprehensive assessment of health status.

Kea (Nestor notabilis) decide early when to wait in food exchange task.

The ability to forego an immediate reward in favor of a bigger or better one at a later point has been linked with advanced cognitive skills, such as impulse control and forward-planning, and can be assessed by the classic food exchange paradigm. While the ability to perform in such tasks has long been regarded as an exclusive trait of humans and some mammals, that is, primates and dogs, in recent years some bird species have been found to perform similarly as primates. Here we test 10 captive kea (Nestor notabilis), using a food exchange paradigm standardized in earlier experiments, but adding the use of a container to hold the initial item. The subjects reached waiting times of up to 160 s. They also showed significantly different results depending on the difference in the preference level for the presented food items, as well as clearly nonrandom waiting times, displaying forward-planning and economic evaluation of the situation at hand. As in most other species, results were markedly better when exchanging for quality as opposed to quantity. These results provide further evidence for temporal discounting in birds and fit in with the data gained on corvids and parrots in recent years. (PsycINFO Database Record

HEALTH ASSESSMENT OF CAPTIVE PSITTACINE SPECIES IN PRERELEASE PROGRAMS AT COSTA RICAN RESCUE CENTERS.

With stricter laws regulating the capture and possession of wild animals in Costa Rica, local wildlife-rescue centers have been overwhelmed by an influx of confiscated or relinquished illegal pets, specifically of psittacine species. As part of a nationwide health-assessment program targeting these centers, 122 birds representing five psittacine species ( Ara macao, Amazona autumnalis, Amazona auropalliata, Amazona farinosa, Aratinga finschi) and one hybrid macaw ( Ara macao × Ara ambiguus) were examined and tested between January 2011 and October 2012. Physical examination, hematology, and serum biochemical analyses were performed. Blood and feathers were tested for psittacine beak and feather disease virus (PBFDV) and avian polyomavirus (APV) via PCR. A DNA-based prevalence and sequence analysis characterized the strains of PBFDV and APV isolated. Physical abnormalities observed in 36% of the 122 birds examined were limited to thin body condition and poor feather quality. None of the feather abnormalities were characteristic of disease caused by either PBFDV or APV. Results of hematological and biochemical analyses were within normal limits except for five birds with leukocytosis and heterophilia, three birds with uric acid values above 16 mg/dl, and two additional birds with AST values above 400 IU/L. No hemoparasites were detected during blood smear examination. Overall prevalences of 9.8% (12/122) for PBFDV and 3.3% (4/122) for APV were documented, with only one bird testing positive for both PBFDV and APV. Birds from two of the eight centers were negative for both viruses. Findings from this study constitute the beginning of a standardized surveillance program for Costa Rican rescue centers, targeting the management of avian species enrolled in propagation and reintroduction programs and expanding of the spectrum of pathogen surveillance and husbandry recommendations in prerelease centers.

Assessment of the microbial quality of water offered to captive psittacine birds.

To investigate potential water-source microbes, 44 samples of water offered to individually caged psittacine birds were aseptically collected from 14 bird-owning households and evaluated for the presence of coliforms, Escherichia coli, heterotrophic bacteria, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. No samples were positive for E. coli; however, 21 of 25 water samples (84%) from open containers and 7 of 19 samples (37%) from bottles exceeded US Environmental Protection Agency standards for coliforms. Fourteen of 24 open containers (58%) and 7 of 19 bottles (37%) grew heterotrophic bacteria that exceeded 500 colonies/ml. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was isolated from water samples from 1 open container and 1 bottle. These results suggest that potentially pathogenic bacteria can be found in water offered to companion psittacine birds. Additional studies are needed to assess whether these bacteria are clinically important causes of disease and to develop husbandry methods that will reduce contamination.

Assessment of a point-of-care biochemical analyzer and comparison with a commercial laboratory for the measurement of total protein and albumin concentrations in psittacines.

OBJECTIVE: To determine agreement for total protein (TP) and albumin concentrations measured by a point-of-care biochemical analyzer in heparinized whole blood and plasma samples obtained from psittacines and compare results with those from a commercial laboratory. SAMPLE POPULATION: Hematologic samples from 92 healthy birds. PROCEDURES: Duplicate samples of heparinized whole blood and plasma were obtained. A point-of-care biochemical analyzer was used to determine TP and albumin concentrations. To assess precision, intraclass correlation coefficient (r(i)) and Bland-Altman measures of agreement were used. These results were compared by use of Bland-Altman plots with those obtained from a commercial laboratory that used a biuret method for TP concentration and electrophoresis for albumin concentration. RESULTS: For the analyzer, there was excellent agreement (r(i) = 0.91) between heparinized whole blood and plasma samples for TP and albumin concentrations. Relative error was 0.9% for TP and 0.7% for albumin. Analyzer results correlated well with commercial laboratory results, with a downward bias of 0.6 for TP and 0.3 for albumin. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The analyzer had excellent precision for analysis of heparinized whole blood or plasma samples for TP or albumin concentrations; analyzer values had good agreement with those from a commercial laboratory. The analyzer could be a valid method to measure plasma TP concentrations and provide point-of-care testing in apparently healthy parrots. Biochemical analyzer results for plasma albumin concentration were not validated by results from a commercial laboratory, so conclusions cannot be drawn regarding use of the analyzer in measurement of albumin concentrations in psittacines.

Assessment of the reliability of plasma electrophoresis in birds.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the reliability of plasma electrophoresis (EPH) in psittacine birds. ANIMALS: 93 psittacine birds. PROCEDURE: Jugular venipuncture was performed on 93 awake psittacine birds. The plasma was centrifuged, separated, aliquoted into duplicate samples, frozen, and sent to 2 commercial laboratories that routinely perform avian EPH. Samples from 51 birds were sent to laboratory A, and samples from 42 birds were sent to laboratory B. The reliability of EPH results within each laboratory was assessed, but not between laboratories. To determine the reliability (agreement between duplicate samples) of total protein, albumin, prealbumin, alpha1-, alpha2-, beta-, and gamma-globulin concentrations, the intraclass correlation coefficient (r(i)) was calculated. RESULTS: Both laboratories had excellent agreement between samples for measurement of total protein concentration and only good agreement for albumin concentration. Except for the prealbumin concentration measured at laboratory B, both laboratories had poor agreement for all other values of the EPH. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: These data indicate that plasma EPH for measuring prealbumin, alpha1-, alpha2-, beta-, and gamma-globulin concentrations may not be a reliable tool for assessing avian health. Small amounts of these proteins in birds plus human variation in reading the EPH curves may lead to variable results. Avian veterinarians should cautiously interpret results from plasma EPH assays for these protein fractions.

Comparative efficiency and accuracy of surgical and cytogenetic sexing in psittacines.

Otoscopic surgical sexing and chromosome analysis through lymphocyte culture were undertaken in 22 psittacine birds of eight species for the purpose of establishing their sex. Comparison of the techniques involved considering success rate, quality of determination, cost, efficiency, and risk. Surgical endoscopy appears to be preferable to chromosome analysis in all categories except risk.