Contribuição da interseccionalidade na compreensão da saúde-doença-cuidado de homens jovens em contextos de pobreza urbana / The contribution of intersectionality on understanding young men's health-disease and care in contexts of urban poverty / Contribución de la interseccionalidad en la comprensión de la salud-enfermedad y el cuidado de hombres jóvenes en contextos de pobreza urbana

O artigo analisa as experiências vividas por homens jovens da periferia a respeito das desigualdades sociais e seus impactos no processo de produção da saúde-doença-cuidado. O material empírico que dá suporte à análise interseccional foi produzido pela metodologia qualitativa da pesquisa-ação, a partir de oficinas, técnica grupal em investigações participativas. Participaram 21 homens e cinco mulheres, com idades entre 15 e 17 anos, que frequentavam escola pública da região periférica do município de São Paulo (SP), Brasil. Os resultados salientam que os homens jovens compartilham desvantagens de raça/cor, classe, gênero e geração que se entrelaçam e atuam de forma complexa na produção das iniquidades sociais e de saúde. Portanto, análises que reduzem as desigualdades a um único sistema classificatório - seja classe, gênero ou raça/cor - são inadequadas para compreender as várias dimensões que as compõem.(AU)

This article analyzes the experiences of young men living in the city outskirts regarding social inequalities and their impacts on the health-disease-care production process. The empirical material that supports the intersectional analysis was produced with a qualitative methodology of research-action based on workshops, a group technique with participatory investigations. A total of 21 men and five women aged between 15 and 17 years who studied at a neighborhood public school of the Brazilian city of São Paulo, state of São Paulo, participated in the study. The results highlight that young men share intertwined race-color, class, gender, and generation disadvantages that act in a complex way in the production of social and health inequalities. Therefore, analyses that restrict inequalities to a single classificatory system—class, gender, or race/color—are inadequate to understand the various dimensions that comprise them.(AU)

El artículo analiza las experiencias vividas por hombres jóvenes de la periferia con relación a las desigualdades sociales y a sus impactos en el proceso de producción de la salud-enfermedad-cuidado. El material empírico que da soporte al análisis interseccional fue producido por la metodología cualitativa de investigación-acción a partir de talleres, técnica grupal en investigaciones participativas. Participaron 21 hombres y cinco mujeres con edades entre los 15 y 17 años que frecuentaban una escuela pública de la región periférica del municipio de São Paulo (Estado de São Paulo), Brasil. Los resultados subrayan que los hombres jóvenes comparten desventajas de raza-color, clase, género y generación que se entrelazan y actúan de manera compleja en la producción de las iniquidades sociales y de la salud. Por lo tanto, análisis que reducen las desigualdades a un único sistema clasificatorio, sea de clase, género o raza/color, son inadecuadas para comprender las varias dimensiones que las componen.(AU)

Beyond the Individual: Social and Cultural Influences on the Health-Seeking Behaviors of African American Men.

Morbidity and mortality rates are alarmingly high among African American men and are influenced by the health-seeking behaviors of this population. This study examined data from 40 focus groups with African American men in Durham, North Carolina, to better understand social and cultural influences on health-seeking behaviors. Data were analyzed using inductive thematic analysis. Three broad types of social/cultural influence on motivation to seek health care services were identified: family, culture and upbringing, and peers. Study findings confirm the importance of social relationships in influencing African American men's health-seeking behaviors and offer characterization of the nature of influence across different types of relationships, according to the direct support or indirect messages they provide. Future programs can draw on these data to inform efforts to include family and peers as well as utilize existing cultural gender norms to the advantage of health promotion for African American men.

An Investigation of Health Management Perceptions and Wellness Behaviors in African American Males in Central Texas.

Little is known regarding interventions that incorporate health management perceptions among African American (AA) men, to reduce the risk for developing various medical conditions. Using the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the study objective was to better understand health-care perceptions of AA men by assessing participants' attitudes, subjective norms (SNs), and perceived behavioral control (PBC) regarding health management. AA adult males in Texas were recruited to participate in one of four qualitative focus groups. The TPB was used to assess participants' attitudes (advantages/disadvantages), SNs (approvers/disapprovers), and PBC (enablers/barriers) regarding health management. All four sessions were audiotaped, transcribed, and independently analyzed by researchers to identify major themes. Participants ( n = 23) were 45.2 ± 16.2 years of age (range 24-74). Regarding attitudes toward health management, participants viewed increased longevity and avoiding future health problems as advantages; however, increased cost, lack of confidence in health care, and social pressures were disadvantages. Regarding SNs, parents and children were positive influencers, while spouses and coworkers were both positive and negative influencers. For PBC, a support system and health awareness were identified as enablers, while medical mistrust, fear, and culture were barriers. The results convey that health management behaviors in AA males are multifaceted. Health-care providers should seek to understand these factors, discuss these issues with AA males, and integrate treatment strategies that are culturally informed and patient centered. Findings from this study may be used to develop targeted interventions that improve health outcomes for AA males.

The Association Between Happiness and Self-Rated Physical Health of African American Men: A Population-Based Cross-Sectional Study.

Happiness and self-rated physical health are included in national surveys to assess health perceptions and subjective well-being among individuals. Studies have reported that happiness impacts physical health; however, little is known about the association between happiness and self-rated physical health among African American men (AAM). The objective of this study is to examine this relationship. Participants were 1,263 AAM aged 18+ years from the National Survey of American Life who rated their happiness and physical health. Interviews were conducted between 2001 and 2003. Self-rated physical health was defined as how individuals rated their own physical health and happiness as how individuals perceived their subjective well-being. Three multivariate logistic regression models were used to examine the relationships between happiness and self-rated physical health. It was observed that AAM who were happy were more likely to be married, to be employed, and earn more than $30,000 annually compared to AAM who were not happy. AAM who were happy were less likely to rate their physical health as fair/poor relative to AAM who were not happy. When controlling for demographic and socioeconomic factors, AAM who reported being happy had lower odds of rating their physical health as fair/poor compared to AAM who reported not being happy. Findings suggest that AAM who are happy report better physical health than those who report not being happy. Public health promotion strategies focusing on AAM should consider happiness as a promising influence that may positively impact physical health.

Male Stigma: Emotional and Behavioral Effects of a Negative Social Identity on a Group of Canadian Men.

Although the concept of stigma has been used to examine the place of various minority populations and women in society, it has not been previously applied to men. This qualitative research explores the experience of 16 Canadian men who believe they were stigmatized due to their sex. The study concludes that the experiences of these participants are consistent with social stigma involving assumptions of male violence and inadequacy with respect to the care of children. Mechanisms whereby such stigmatic assumptions could be maintained are explored along with the need for further research. The results of this research will have immediate application to counsellors working in the area of men's wellness who wish to understand the experience from the perspective of their clients.

Physical Activity Interventions With African American or Latino Men: A Systematic Review.

Relatively little is known about what helps increase physical activity in African American men, and even less is known about promoting physical activity among Latino men. This systematic review aimed to address the key questions: (a) what is the state of the evidence on health-related behavior change interventions targeting physical activity among African American or Latino men? and (b) What factors facilitate physical activity for these men? For this review, nine electronic databases were searched to identify peer-reviewed articles published between 2011-2017 that reported interventions to promote physical activity among African American or Latino men. Following PRISMA guidelines, nine articles representing seven studies that met our criteria were identified: six published studies that provided data for African American men, and one published study provided data for Latino men. Consistent with previous reviews, more research is needed to better understand how gender can be incorporated in physical activity interventions for African American and Latino men. Future interventions should explore how being an adult male and a man of color shapes motivations, attitudes, and preferences to be physically active. Studies should consider how race and ethnicity intersect with notions of masculinity, manhood and Machismo to enhance the effectiveness of physical activity interventions for these populations. Despite the health benefits of physical activity, rates of these behaviors remain low among African American and Latino men. It is essential to determine how best to increase the motivation and salience for these men to overcome the obesogenic environments and contexts in which they often live.

Differences in Obesity Among Men of Diverse Racial and Ethnic Background.

Racial/ethnic disparities exist in obesity prevalence among men, with Hispanic men exhibiting the highest prevalence compared with non-Hispanic White and non-Hispanic Black men. Most studies do not parse out Hispanic groups; therefore, it is unclear whether the increases in obesity rates among Hispanic men applies to all groups or if there are particular groups of Hispanic men that are driving the increase. The goal of this study is to examine the variations in obesity among men of diverse racial/ethnic backgrounds and determine if obesity is affected by nativity. The data used in this study were from 11 years (2002-2012) of the National Health Interview Survey. Logistic regression was used to examine the relationship between race/ethnicity, obesity, and nativity. After adjusting for covariates, there are differences in obesity prevalence, with the largest prevalence among Puerto Rican men and Mexican American men. Consistent with previous literature, it has been suggested that men born in the United States are more likely to be obese than men born outside the United States. This study underscores the importance of distinguishing Hispanic groups when examining obesity, and provides information for future, targeted intervention strategies related to obesity among high-risk groups.

Black and Blue: Depression and African American Men.

Depression is a common mental disorder affecting individuals. Although many strides have been made in the area of depression, little is known about depression in special populations, especially African American men. African American men often differ in their presentation of depression and are often misdiagnosed. African American men are at greater risk for depression, but they are less likely to participate in mental health care. This article explores depression in African American by looking at environmental factors, sigma, role, and other unique to this populations, such as John Henryism. Interventions to encourage early screening and participation in care are also discussed.

Visible and Invisible Trends in Black Men's Health: Pitfalls and Promises for Addressing Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Inequities in Health.

Over the past two decades, there has been growing interest in improving black men's health and the health disparities affecting them. Yet, the health of black men consistently ranks lowest across nearly all groups in the United States. Evidence on the health and social causes of morbidity and mortality among black men has been narrowly concentrated on public health problems (e.g., violence, prostate cancer, and HIV/AIDS) and determinants of health (e.g., education and male gender socialization). This limited focus omits age-specific leading causes of death and other social determinants of health, such as discrimination, segregation, access to health care, employment, and income. This review discusses the leading causes of death for black men and the associated risk factors, as well as identifies gaps in the literature and presents a racialized and gendered framework to guide efforts to address the persistent inequities in health affecting black men.

Am I My Brother's Keeper? African American Men's Health Within the Context of Equity and Policy.

African American men's health has at times been regarded as irrelevant to the health and well-being of the communities where they are born, grow, live, work, and age. The uniqueness of being male and of African descent calls for a critical examination and deeper understanding of the psycho-socio-historical context in which African American men have lived. There is a critical need for scholarship that better contextualizes African American Male Theory and cultural humility in terms of public health. Furthermore, the focus of much of the social determinants of health and health equity policy literature has been on advocacy, but few researchers have examined why health-related public policies have not been adopted and implemented from a political and theoretical policy analysis perspective. The purpose of this article will be to examine African American men's health within the context of social determinants of health status, health behavior, and health inequalities-elucidating policy implications for system change and providing recommendations from the vantage point of health equity.

"I AM a Man": Manhood, Minority Men's Health and Health Equity.

OBJECTIVE: To consider how manhood is a key social determinant of minority men's health. DESIGN: This commentary explicates how manhood intersects with other determinants of health to shape minority men's stress responses, health behaviors and health outcomes across the life course. RESULTS: Manhood, which perpetually needs to be proven, is an aspirational identity that is defined by the intersection of age, race/ethnicity and other identities. Minority men seek to and successfully embody US-cultural and ethnic-specific aspects of manhood in their daily lives by engaging in behaviors that constantly reaffirm their gender identity through a complex internal and social calculus that varies by intra-personal characteristics and context. Manhood and health are relational constructs that highlight how the salience of masculinities are shaped by perceived and actual social norms and expectations. A life course perspective adds a framework for considering how some gendered beliefs, goals and behaviors change over time while others remain static. Three life course frameworks highlight different mechanisms through which minority men's life experiences and physiological and behavioral responses to gendered social norms, beliefs and expectations become embodied as premature mortality and other health outcomes over the life course. CONCLUSION: Manhood represents an important lens to understand how minority men's identities, goals and priorities affect their health, yet the role of manhood in minority men's health is understudied and underdeveloped. To achieve health equity, it is critical to consider how manhood shapes minority men's lives and health across the life course, and to address how manhood affects gendered and non-gendered mechanisms and pathways that explain minority men's health over time.

An Examination of Lower Extremity Function and its Correlates in Older African American and White Men.

OBJECTIVE: Maintaining functional status and reducing/eliminating health disparities in late life are key priorities. Older African Americans have been found to have worse lower extremity functioning than Whites, but little is known about potential differences in correlates between African American and White men. The goal of this investigation was to examine measures that could explain this racial difference and to identify race-specific correlates of lower extremity function. METHODS: Data were analyzed for a sample of community-dwelling men. Linear regression models examined demographics, medical conditions, health behaviors, and perceived discrimination and mental health as correlates of an objective measure of lower extremity function, the Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB). Scores on the SPPB have a potential range of 0 to 12 with higher scores corresponding to better functioning. RESULTS: The mean age of all men was 74.9 years (SD=6.5), and the sample was 50% African American and 53% rural. African American men had scores on the SPPB that were significantly lower than White men after adjusting for age, rural residence, marital status, education, and income difficulty (P<.01). Racial differences in cognitive functioning accounted for approximately 41% of the race effect on physical function. Additional models stratified by race revealed a pattern of similar correlates of the SPPB among African American and White men. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this investigation can be helpful for researchers and clinicians to aid in identifying older men who are at-risk for poor lower extremity function and in planning targeted interventions to help reduce disparities.

A Life Course Approach to Inequality: Examining Racial/Ethnic Differences in the Relationship between Early Life Socioeconomic Conditions and Adult Health Among Men.

OBJECTIVE: Previous research has documented a relationship between childhood socioeconomic conditions and adult health, but less is known about racial/ethnic differences in this relationship, particularly among men. This study utilizes a life course approach to investigate racial/ethnic differences in the relationships among early and later life socioeconomic circumstances and health in adulthood among men. DESIGN: Panel data from the Health and Retirement Study and growth curve models are used to examine group differences in the relationships among childhood and adult socioeconomic factors and age-trajectories of self-rated health among White, Black and Mexican American men aged 51-77 years (N=4147). RESULTS: Multiple measures of childhood socioeconomic status (SES) predict health in adulthood for White men, while significantly fewer measures of childhood SES predict health for Black and Mexican American men. Moreover, the health consequences of childhood SES diminish with age for Black and Mexican American men. The childhood SES-adult health relationship is largely explained by measures of adult SES for White men. CONCLUSIONS: The life course pathways linking childhood SES and adult health differ by race/ethnicity among men. Similar to arguments that the universality of the adult SES-health relationship should not be assumed, results from our study suggest that scholars should not assume that the significance and nature of the association between childhood SES and health in adulthood is similar across race/ethnicity among men.

Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Men's Health: Examining Psychosocial Mechanisms.

This study uses data from the Health and Retirement Study and an approach informed by the Biopsychosocial Model of Racism as a Stressor to examine the extent to which socioeconomic status, stressors, discrimination, and neighborhood conditions are mechanisms underlying racial/ethnic disparities in functional limitations among men. Results reveal that racial/ethnic differences in socioeconomic status, stressors, discrimination, and neighborhood conditions-individually and collectively-account for a substantial proportion of racial/ethnic disparities in functional limitations. Findings suggest that the social determinants of health for men of color need to be more seriously considered in investigations of and efforts to address health disparities.

"If you do nothing about stress, the next thing you know, you're shattered": Perspectives on African American men's stress, coping and health from African American men and key women in their lives.

Stress has been implicated as a key contributor to poor health outcomes; however, few studies have examined how African American men and women explicitly describe the relationships among stress, coping, and African American men's health. In this paper, we explore strategies men use to cope with stress, and beliefs about the consequences of stress for African American men's health behaviors, morbidity and mortality from the perspectives of African American men and women. A phenomenological analytic approach was used to examine focus group data collected from 154 African American men (18 focus groups) and 77 African American women (8 focus groups). Women's perspectives were captured because women often observe men under stress and can provide support to men during stressful times. Our findings indicate that African American men in this study responded to stress by engaging in often identified coping behaviors (i.e., consumption of calorie dense food, exercise, spiritually-related activities). Men in our study, however, did not always view their responses to stress as explicit coping mechanisms. There was also some discordance between men's and women's perceptions of men's coping behaviors as there were occasions where they seemed to interpret the same behavior differently (e.g., resting vs. avoidance). Men and women believed that stress helped to explain why African American men had worse health than other groups. They identified mental, physical and social consequences of stress. We conclude by detailing implications for conceptualizing and measuring coping and we outline key considerations for interventions and further research about stress, coping and health.

Procura por cuidados de saúde: questões de gênero e raça entre colaboradores negros de umauniversidade / Búsqueda de atención de salud: cuestiones de género y raza entre colaboradores negros de unauniversidad / Seeking for health care: issues of gender and race among black contributors from a university

Objective: Analyze the issues of gender and race involved in seeking for health care among black contributors from a university. Method: this is a qualitative study conducted by means of semi-structured interviews, whose subjects were 10 employees and outsourced workers from a university located in Feira de Santana, Bahia, Brazil. Results: in general, men do not seek health care the same way as women. Fears with regard to bringing his masculinity into question, due to undergoing exams, and to the risk of job loss, due to time off from work, suggest to a man that seeking for health care implies a conjuncture of unemployment, economic deprivation, and powerlessness to provide his family with a living. Conclusion: we identified influence of the categories race and gender and interference of social constructs related to them in seeking for health care among black men who are active in the labor market...

Objetivo: Analisar as questões de gênero e raça envolvidas na procura por cuidados de saúde entre colaboradores negros de uma universidade. Método: trata-se de estudo de natureza qualitativa realizado por meio de entrevistas semiestruturadas, cujos sujeitos foram 10 funcionários e prestadores de serviço de uma universidade localizada em Feira de Santana (BA). Resultados: em geral, o homem não procura cuidados de saúde da mesma forma que a mulher. Receios relativos ao questionamento de sua masculinidade, por se submeter a exames, e ao risco da perda do emprego, por ausentar-se do local de trabalho, sugerem ao homem que a busca por cuidados de saúde implica uma conjuntura de desemprego, privação econômica e impotência para prover o sustento de sua família. Conclusão: identificou-se a influência das categorias raça e gênero e a interferência de constructos sociais relativas a elas na busca por cuidados de saúde entre homens negros que se encontram ativos no mercado de trabalho...

Objetivo: Analizar las cuestiones de género y raza involucradas en la búsqueda de atención de salud entre los colaboradores negros de una universidad. Método: esto es un estudio de carácter cualitativo realizado por medio de entrevistas semi-estructuradas, cuyos sujetos fueron 10 empleados y trabajadores tercerizados de una universidad ubicada en Feira de Santana, Bahía, Brasil. Resultados: en general, el hombre no busca atención de salud de la misma manera que la mujer. Recelos con respecto a poner su masculinidad en duda, debido a someterse a exámenes, y al riesgo de pérdida de empleo, debido a la ausencia del trabajo, sugieren al hombre que la búsqueda de atención de salud implica una coyuntura de desempleo, privación económica e incapacidad para proveer a su familia. Conclusión: se identificó la influencia de las categorías raza y género y la interferencia de constructos sociales relacionados con ellas en la búsqueda de atención de salud entre hombres negros que están activos en el mercado laboral...

Information gathering and technology use among low-income minority men at risk for prostate cancer.

Health communication researchers, public health workers, and health professionals must learn more about the health information-gathering behavior of low-income minority men at risk for prostate cancer in order to share information effectively with the population. In collaboration with the Milwaukee Health Department Men's Health Referral Network, a total of 90 low-income adult men were recruited to complete a survey gauging information sources, seeking behavior, use of technology, as well as prostate cancer awareness and screening behavior. Results indicated participants primarily relied on health professionals, family, and friends for information about general issues of health as well as prostate cancer. The Internet was the least relied on source of information. A hierarchical regression indicated interpersonal information sources such as family or friends to be the only significant predictor enhancing prostate cancer awareness, controlling for other sources of information. Prostate screening behaviors were predicted by reliance on not only medical professionals but also the Internet. Practical implications of the study are discussed.

Disentangling race and social context in understanding disparities in chronic conditions among men.

Disparities in men's health research may inaccurately attribute differences in chronic conditions to race rather than the different health risk exposures in which men live. This study sought to determine whether living in the same social environment attenuates race disparities in chronic conditions among men. This study compared survey data collected in 2003 from black and white men with similar incomes living in a racially integrated neighborhood of Baltimore to data from the 2003 National Health Interview Survey. Multivariable logistic regression models estimated to determine whether race disparities in chronic conditions were attenuated among men living in the same social environment. In the national sample, black men exhibited greater odds of having hypertension (odds ratio [OR] = 1.58, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.34, 1.86) and diabetes (OR = 1.62, 95% CI 1.27-2.08) than white men. In the sample of men living in the same social context, black and white respondents had similar odds of having hypertension (OR = 1.05, 95% CI 0.70, 1.59) and diabetes (OR = 1.12, 95% CI 0.57-2.22). There are no race disparities in chronic conditions among low-income, urban men living in the same social environment. Policies and interventions aiming to reduce disparities in chronic conditions should focus on modifying social aspects of the environment.

Capacity building in indigenous men's groups and sheds across Australia.

This article presents an investigation into capacity building, at the community level, in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Men's Groups and Sheds. As safe men's spaces, Men's Groups and Sheds represent an ever-growing social, and health and well-being community service across Australia. The study is qualitative and employs 'yarning circles' (focus groups), semi-structured interviews and observations to gather data from 15 Groups/Sheds involving 45 men from urban, regional and remote communities. We found that capacity building is primarily about securing relationships between Group Leaders/Shed Co-ordinators and Government services. Capacity building establishes links to services such as Centrelink, Medicare, Department of Housing, Probation and Control, and positive outcomes such as Indigenous men securing housing and Centrelink payments. Capacity building results in better health outcomes and, educates and empowers men to improve their social, cultural, emotional and economic well-being. It helps men to better connect with family and community. The current research paves the way for countries worldwide to explore the conceptual and empirical approach of capacity building applicable to other Indigenous [and non-Indigenous] Men's Groups/Sheds. We recommend feasibilities studies, on approaches to capacity building in Indigenous Groups/Sheds, be carried out within urban, regional and remote regions across the country.

How do African American men rate their health care? An analysis of the consumer assessment of health plans 2003-2006.

African American (AA) men remain one of the most disconnected groups from health care. This study examines the association between AA men's rating of health care and rating of their personal physician. The sample included 12,074 AA men aged 18 years or older from the 2003 to 2006 waves of the Consumer Assessment of Healthcare Providers and Systems Adult Commercial Health Plan Survey. Multilevel models were used to obtain adjusted means rating of health care systems and personal physician, and the relationship of ratings with the rating of personal physician. The adjusted means were 80 (on a 100-point scale) for most health ratings and composite health care scores: personal physician (83.9), specialist (83.66), health care (82.34), getting needed care (89.57), physician communication (83.17), medical staff courtesy (86.58), and customer service helpfulness (88.37). Physician communication was the strongest predictor for physician rating. AA men's health is understudied, and additional research is warranted to improve how they interface with the health care system.