In Honor of Dr. Abdul Hussein Taba: Iranian Physician and Former Director of the Eastern Mediterranean Region of the World Health Organization.

The honorable Abdul Hussein Tabatabaei was born in 1911 in Iran and received his medical education in the United Kingdom. Famously known as Dr. A.H. Taba, he was a well-respected man for his significant impact on the improvement of the national and global healthcare services and support for social justice. Before joining the World Health Organization (WHO), he was twice elected to the Iranian national assembly and served as the under-secretary of health services in Iran. Later, he joined the WHO and was elected as the Director of the Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMRO) in Alexandria in 1957 - a position he maintained for 25 years. During his tenure as the Regional Director, he rendered valuable assistance to the development and expansion of major health issues such as development and expansion of the health workforce, improvement of the national health services and controlling of various communicable diseases in the member countries and across the WHO regional offices.

Global health in the making: health demonstration areas in Europe, 1950s and 1960s.

Global health is a multifaceted concept that entails the standardization of procedures in healthcare domains in accordance with a doctrine agreed upon by experts. This essay focus on the creation of health demonstration areas by the World Health Organisation (WHO) to establish core nodes for integrated state-of-the-art health services. It explores the origins, theoretical basis and aims of this technique and reviews several European experiences during the first 20 years of the WHO. Particular attention is paid to the historical importance of technical cooperative activities carried out by the WHO in regard to the implementation of health services, a long-term strategic move that contributed to the thematic upsurge of primary health care in the late 1970s.

Global health in the making: health demonstration areas in Europe, 1950s and 1960s / Construcción de la salud global: zonas de demostración sanitaria en Europa, décadas de 1950 y 1960

Abstract Global health is a multifaceted concept that entails the standardization of procedures in healthcare domains in accordance with a doctrine agreed upon by experts. This essay focus on the creation of health demonstration areas by the World Health Organisation (WHO) to establish core nodes for integrated state-of-the-art health services. It explores the origins, theoretical basis and aims of this technique and reviews several European experiences during the first 20 years of the WHO. Particular attention is paid to the historical importance of technical cooperative activities carried out by the WHO in regard to the implementation of health services, a long-term strategic move that contributed to the thematic upsurge of primary health care in the late 1970s.

Resumen Salud global es un concepto complejo que implica la normalización de los procedimientos de actuación sanitaria siguiendo una doctrina acordada por expertos. Este trabajo se ocupa del establecimiento de zonas de demostración sanitaria por la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) a modo de núcleos de modernos servicios sanitarios integrados. Revisa el origen, las bases téoricas y los objetivos de esta técnica y examina diversas experiencias europeas durante los primeros veinte años de la OMS. Pone de manifiesto la importancia histórica de las actividades de cooperación técnica de la OMS en la puesta en marcha de servicios sanitarios, una estrategia de largo plazo que ayuda a entender la aparición de la atención primaria de salud a finales de la década de 1970.

Universal health coverage and capital accumulation: a relationship unveiled by the critical political economy approach.

OBJECTIVES: To analyze the fundamentals of the global health agenda from 1944 to 2018, especially regarding Universal Health Coverage, in order to unveil its relations with capital accumulation in health services and to contribute to world social mobilization to change this tendency. METHODS: A historical study was carried out based on a purposeful selection of primary sources on the global health agenda from multilateral organizations and secondary sources about the changes of capitalism from the study period. RESULTS: The global health agenda changed from the state responsibility for health to an insurance healthcare system based on markets. The medical-industrial complex pressured national economies, broke postwar pacts, and urged economic globalization. The neoliberal, neoclassical, and neo-institutional discourse that promoted a new state-market relationship eased the new capital accumulation in healthcare into financial and cognitive capitalism. CONCLUSIONS: Understanding these relationships allows us to provide elements for social mobilization geared to transform the healthcare sector toward a new vision of health with a nature-society relationship that contributes to socially constructing human and environmental health, rather than gaining profits based on illness and chronic suffering.

"Everything Possible Is Being Done": Labour, Mobility, and the Organization of Health Services in Mid-20th Century Newfoundland.

This article is the Presidential Address to the 2018 meeting of the Canadian Society for the History of Medicine at the University of Regina. It examines the organization of the nursing service in Newfoundland during the 1950s and 1960s, as well as the recruitment and retention of nurses in cottage hospitals and nursing stations in outport communities. A number of interconnected strategies were used by the Newfoundland government to staff the nursing service, including recruiting internationally educated nurses, adjusting expectations with respect to registration standards, and using both trained and untrained workers to support nurses' labour. Although this article is intended more as a reconnaissance suggesting the possibilities of such research, it does analyze the interconnected issues of geography, funding and pay, the nursing shortage, and the renegotiation of nursing labour that characterized this period. Furthermore, although this is a case study of Newfoundland and Labrador, it is worth considering how, or whether, the linked strategies used in the province were transferable to other communities across rural, remote, or northern Canada.

Possible evidence for care and treatment in the Tyrolean Iceman.

The Tyrolean Iceman is the world's oldest glacier mummy. He was found in September 1991 in the Italian part of the Ötztal Alps. Since his discovery a variety of morphological, radiological and molecular analyses have been performed that revealed detailed insights into his state of health. Despite the various pathological conditions found in the Iceman, little is known about possible forms of care and treatment during the Copper Age in Northern Italy. A possible approach to this topic is the presence of tattoos on the mummified body. In previous work, it was already believed that the tattoos were administered as a kind of treatment for his lower back pain and degenerative joint disease of his knees, hip and wrist. In other studies, the tattoos of the Iceman have been related to an early form of acupuncture. We carefully re-evaluated the various health issues of the Iceman, including joint diseases, gastrointestinal problems and arterial calcifications and compared them to the location and number of tattoos. Together with the finding of medically effective fungi and plants, such as the birch polypore or fern in his equipment and intestines, we suggest that care and treatment was already common during the Iceman's time.

"Honey, Milk and Bile": a social history of Hillbrow, 1894-2016.

This commentary constructs a social history of Hillbrow, an inner-city suburb in Johannesburg, South Africa, based on a review of relevant published historical, anthropological and sociological texts. We highlight the significant continuities in the social structure of the suburb, despite the radical transformations that have occurred over the last 120 years.Originally envisaged as a healthy residential area, distinct from the industrial activity of early Johannesburg, Hillbrow was a prime location for health infrastructure to serve the city. By the late 1960s, the suburb had been transformed by the rapid construction of high rise office and apartment buildings, providing temporary low cost accommodation for young people, migrants and immigrants. In the 1980s, Hillbrow defied the apartheid state policy of racial separation of residential areas, and earned the reputation of a liberated zone of tolerance and inclusion. By the 1990s, affected by inner-city decay and the collapse of services for many apartment buildings, the suburb became associated with crime, sex work, and ungovernability. More recently, the revitalisation of the Hillbrow Health Precinct has created a more optimistic narrative of the suburb as a site for research and interventions that has the potential to have a positive impact on the health of its residents.The concentration of innovative public health interventions in Hillbrow today, particularly in the high quality health services and multidisciplinary research of the Hillbrow Health Precinct, creates the possibility for renewal of this troubled inner-city suburb.

Health and health care in Israel: an introduction.

Starting well before Independence in 1948, and over the ensuing six decades, Israel has built a robust, relatively efficient public system of health care, resulting in good health statistics throughout the life course. Because of the initiative of people living under the British Mandate for Palestine (1922-48), the development of many of today's health services predated the state's establishment by several decades. An extensive array of high-quality services and technologies is available to all residents, largely free at point of service, via the promulgation of the 1994 National Health Insurance Law. In addition to a strong medical academic culture, well equipped (albeit crowded) hospitals, and a robust primary-care infrastructure, the country has also developed some model national projects such as a programme for community quality indicators, an annual update of the national basket of services, and a strong system of research and education. Challenges include increasing privatisation of what was once largely a public system, and the underfunding in various sectors resulting in, among other challenges, relatively few acute hospital beds. Despite substantial organisational and financial investment, disparities persist based on ethnic origin or religion, other socioeconomic factors, and, regardless of the country's small size, a geographic maldistribution of resources. The Ministry of Health continues to be involved in the ownership and administration of many general hospitals and the direct payment for some health services (eg, geriatric institutional care), activities that distract it from its main task of planning for and supervising the whole health structure. Although the health-care system itself is very well integrated in relation to the country's two main ethnic groups (Israeli Arabs and Israeli Jews), we think that health in its widest sense might help provide a bridge to peace and reconciliation between the country and its neighbours.

Fidel: paradigma de los médicos cubanos / Fidel: the Cuban doctors' paradigm

Se revisan documentos relacionados con el desarrollo de la salud pública cubana después del triunfo de la Revolución y la ayuda a otros pueblos del mundo. Se constata la participación directa del Comandante en Jefe Fidel Castro Ruz en muchos de los logros alcanzados por Cuba en materia de salud y en la práctica del internacionalismo proletario. Asimismo, se demuestra que la voluntad revolucionaria de un hombre como Fidel pudo movilizar la conciencia humana por un mundo mejor

Documents related to the development of the Cuban public health after the victory of the Revolution and the help to other countries are reviewed. The Commander in Chief Fidel Castro Ruz direct participation is verified in many of the achievements reached by Cuba regarding health and in the practice of the proletarian internationalism. Also, it is demonstrated that the revolutionary will of a man as Fidel could mobilize the human conscience for a better world

Do benefits in kind or refunds affect health service utilization and health outcomes? A natural experiment from Japan.

Although the payment systems of public health insurance vary greatly across countries, we still have limited knowledge of their effects. To quantify the changes from a benefits in kind system to a refund system, we exploit the largest physician strike in Japan since the Second World War. During the strike in 1971 led by the Japan Medical Association (JMA), JMA physicians resigned as health insurance doctors, but continued to provide medical care and even health insurance treatment in some areas. This study uses the regional differences in resignation rates as a natural experiment to examine the effect of the payment method of health insurance on medical service utilization and health outcomes. In the main analysis, aggregated monthly prefectural data are used (N=46). Our estimation results indicate that if the participation rate of the strike had increased by 1% point and proxy claims were refused completely, the number of cases of insurance benefits and the total amount of insurance benefits would have decreased by 0.78% and 0.58%, respectively compared with the same month in the previous year. Moreover, the average amount of insurance benefits per claim increased since patients with relatively less serious diseases might have sought health care less often. Finally, our results suggest that the mass of resignations did not affect death rates.

Permanent professional education in healthcare services / Educación permanente en los servicios de salud / Educação permanente nos serviços de saúde

Objective: To analyze the literature on permanent education, identifying the conceptual evolution and its application in health services in Brazil. Method: An integrative review of the literature was performed. A total of 54 studies written in English, Portuguese and Spanish, published from January 1970 to May 2016 from the databases of the Virtual Health Library, were included. Results: Conceptual problematization was highlighted as a contribution to educational actions, indicating a conceptual development of permanent education in Brazil. However, permanent education actions sometimes occur independently from the work process. There are difficulties in understanding and application, with repercussions for health services, revealing that professionals' and managers' commitment is a challenge. Implications for practice: Continuing education is a field that lacks investments for the transformation of reality in the health service routine in Brazil.

Objetivo: Analizar la literatura sobre la Educación Continua, identificando la evolución conceptual y su aplicación en los servicios de salud en Brasil. Método: Revisión integrativa de la literatura. Se incluyeron 54 estudios en inglés, portugués y español, desde enero de 1970 hasta mayo de 2016, a partir de las bases de la Biblioteca Virtual de Salud. Resultados: Se destacó la concepción problematizada como contribución a la educación, lo que indica avance conceptual en la educación continua en Brasil. Sin embargo, las acciones de educación permanente, por veces, suceden desconectadas del proceso de trabajo. Existen dificultades en la comprensión y aplicación, con repercusiones en los servicios de salud, revelándose como un reto el compromiso de los profesionales y directivos. Implicaciones para la práctica: La educación continua es un campo que necesita más inversión para la transformación de la realidad en la vida cotidiana de los servicios de salud en Brasil.

Objetivo: Analisar a literatura sobre educação permanente, identificando a evolução conceitual e sua aplicação nos serviços de saúde no Brasil. Método: Revisão integrativa de literatura. Foram incluídas 54 publicações em inglês, português e espanhol, de janeiro de 1970 a maio de 2016, provenientes das bases da Biblioteca Virtual em Saúde. Resultados: Destacou-se a concepção problematizadora como aporte para as ações educativas, indicando avanço conceitual sobre a educação permanente no Brasil. No entanto, as ações de educação permanente, por vezes, acontecem desarticuladas do processo de trabalho. Existem dificuldades de compreensão e aplicação, com repercussões nos serviços de saúde, revelando-se como desafio o comprometimento dos profissionais e gestores. Implicações para a prática: A educação permanente é campo que carece de investimentos, visando à transformação da realidade no cotidiano dos serviços de saúde, no Brasil.

[The development of medical care in prison system of Russia (end of XVII-early XX centuries)].

The article considers historical medical aspect of development of medical care of convicts in Russia. The first mentioning about treatment of ill criminals relates to 1775. In 1788 the Regulations of prisons was prepared using experience ofprison systems of European states. From 1819, organization of medical care ofpopulation fell within the competence of the Ministry of Internal Affairs that created conditions for organization of medical care in prison system. The legal basics of medical care of convicts were adopted in 1831. In 1850, out of980 000 of jailed prisoners died 1598 (0.16%) of them. In 1879, in the prison Headquarters was organized position of inspector of medical care. This employee coordinated rendering of medical care of prisoners and developed sanitary hygienic measures. The primary unit of national penitentiary system made up authorities of management ofparticular places of confinement. In 1887physicians andfeldshers were accredited to them. The state placed very high demands to medical personnel. The treatment of ill prisoners implemented at the expense of the state. During analyzed period, uniform medical statistics of morbidity. It is demonstrated that special attention was paid to infectious diseases.

[Health care in the prisons of the Kingdom. General Royal Ordinance of prisons of 1834]. / La Sanidad en los presidios del Reino. Real Ordenanza General de presidios de 1834.

In the 19th century, the concept of "prison health" began to make an appearance in Spanish legislation as an integral part of prison management. Thanks to a series of ideological and progressive principles in the same century, laws were decreed and regulated to address the need for adequate medical care for prisoners in Africa, Spain and the overseas territories. The most important of these was the Royal Ordinance of Prisoners of the Kingdom of 1834, and subsequent Regulation of 1844.

'The hospital was just like a home': self, service and the 'McCord Hospital Family'.

For more than a century, McCord Hospital, a partly private and partly state-subsidised mission hospital has provided affordable health-care services, as well as work and professional training opportunities for thousands of people in Durban, a city on the east coast of South Africa. This article focuses on one important aspect of the hospital's longevity and particular character, or 'organisational culture': the ethos of a 'McCord Family', integral to which were faith and a commitment to service. While recognising that families - including 'hospital families' like that at McCord - are contentious social constructs, with deeply embedded hierarchies and inequalities based on race, class and gender, we also consider however how the notion of 'a McCord family' was experienced and shared in complex ways. Indeed, during the twentieth century, this ethos was avidly promoted by the hospital's founders and managers and by a wide variety of employees and trainees. It also extended to people at a far geographical remove from Durban. Moreover, this ethos became so powerful that many patients felt that it shaped their convalescence experience positively. This article considers how this 'family ethos' was constructed and what made it so attractive to this hospital's staff, trainees and patients. Furthermore, we consider what 'work' it did for this mission hospital, especially in promoting bonds of multi-racial unity in the contexts of segregation and apartheid society. More broadly, it suggests that critical histories of the ways in which individuals, hospitals, faith and 'families' intersect may be of value for the future of hospitals as well as of interest in their past.