Implementing electronic identification for performance recording in sheep: II. Cost-benefit analysis in meat and dairy farms.

Costs and secondary benefits of implementing electronic identification (e-ID) for performance recording (i.e., lambing, body weight, inventory, and milk yield) in dairy and meat ewes were assessed by using the results from a previous study in which manual (M), semiautomatic (SA), and automatic (AU) data collection systems were compared. Ewes were identified with visual ear tags and electronic rumen boluses. The M system used visual identification, on-paper data recording, and manual data uploading to a computer. The SA system used e-ID with a handheld reader in which performances were typed and automatic uploaded to a computer. The use of a personal digital assistant (PDA) for recording and automatic data uploading, which transformed M in a SA system, was also considered. The AU system was only used for BW recording and consisted of e-ID, automatic data recording in an electronic scale, and uploading to a computer. The cost-benefit study was applied to 2 reference sheep farms of 700 meat ewes, under extensive or intensive production systems, and of 400 dairy ewes, practicing once- or twice-a-day machine milkings. Sensitivity analyses under voluntary and mandatory e-ID scenarios were also included. Benefits of using e-ID for SA or AU performance recording mainly depended on sheep farm purpose, number of test days per year, handheld reader and PDA prices, and flock size. Implementing e-ID for SA and AU performance recording saved approximately 50% of the time required by the M system, and increased the reliability of the data collected. Use of e-ID increased the cost of performance recording in a voluntary e-ID scenario, paying only partially the investment made (15 to 70%). For the mandatory e-ID scenario, in which the cost of e-ID devices was not included, savings paid 100% of the extra costs needed for using e-ID in all farm types and conditions. In both scenarios, the reader price was the most important extra cost (40 to 90%) for implementing e-ID in sheep farms. Calculated extra costs of using the PDA covered more than 100% of the implementation costs in all type of sheep farms, indicating that this device was cost-effective for sheep-performance recording.

A face in the crowd: a non-invasive and cost effective photo-identification methodology to understand the fine scale movement of eastern water dragons.

Ectothermic vertebrates face many challenges of thermoregulation. Many species rely on behavioral thermoregulation and move within their landscape to maintain homeostasis. Understanding the fine-scale nature of this regulation through tracking techniques can provide a better understanding of the relationships between such species and their dynamic environments. The use of animal tracking and telemetry technology has allowed the extensive collection of such data which has enabled us to better understand the ways animals move within their landscape. However, such technologies do not come without certain costs: they are generally invasive, relatively expensive, can be too heavy for small sized animals and unreliable in certain habitats. This study provides a cost-effective and non-invasive method through photo-identification, to determine fine scale movements of individuals. With our methodology, we have been able to find that male eastern water dragons (Intellagama leuseurii) have home ranges one and a half times larger than those of females. Furthermore, we found intraspecific differences in the size of home ranges depending on the time of the day. Lastly, we found that location mostly influenced females' home ranges, but not males and discuss why this may be so. Overall, we provide valuable information regarding the ecology of the eastern water dragon, but most importantly demonstrate that non-invasive photo-identification can be successfully applied to the study of reptiles.

Optimizing the size of the area surveyed for monitoring a Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) population in the Swiss Alps by means of photographic capture-recapture.

We studied the influence of surveyed area size on density estimates by means of camera-trapping in a low-density felid population (1-2 individuals/100 km(2) ). We applied non-spatial capture-recapture (CR) and spatial CR (SCR) models for Eurasian lynx during winter 2005/2006 in the northwestern Swiss Alps by sampling an area divided into 5 nested plots ranging from 65 to 760 km(2) . CR model density estimates (95% CI) for models M0 and Mh decreased from 2.61 (1.55-3.68) and 3.6 (1.62-5.57) independent lynx/100 km(2) , respectively, in the smallest to 1.20 (1.04-1.35) and 1.26 (0.89-1.63) independent lynx/100 km(2) , respectively, in the largest area surveyed. SCR model density estimates also decreased with increasing sampling area but not significantly. High individual range overlaps in relatively small areas (the edge effect) is the most plausible reason for this positive bias in the CR models. Our results confirm that SCR models are much more robust to changes in trap array size than CR models, thus avoiding overestimation of density in smaller areas. However, when a study is concerned with monitoring population changes, large spatial efforts (area surveyed ≥760 km(2) ) are required to obtain reliable and precise density estimates with these population densities and recapture rates.

[Using the capture-mark-recapture method for quantitative assessment of populations of molluscs in two sites in Lampsar (Valley of the Senegal River)]. / Utilisation de la méthode capture-marquage-recapture pour une évaluation quantitative des populations de mollusques dans deux sites à Lampsar (Vallée du Fleuve Sénégal).

The authors have made an estimate of the number of mollusc by the capture-mark-recapture method at two sites in the Valley of the Senegal River. This quantification is necessary to track the effect of the introduction in one of the sites of a native shrimp Machrobrachium vollenhovenii, predator of mollusc. The populations of two study sites were approximately 1,800 and 1,500 individuals with coefficients of variation of about 30%.

Rapid effective trace-back capability value: a case study of foot-and-mouth in the Texas High Plains.

In this study our aim was to value the benefits of rapid effective trace-back capability-based on a livestock identification system - in the event of a foot and mouth disease (FMD) outbreak. We simulated an FMD outbreak in the Texas High Plains, an area of high livestock concentration, beginning in a large feedlot. Disease spread was simulated under different time dependent animal tracing scenarios. In the specific scenario modeled (incursion of FMD within a large feedlot, detection within 14 days and 90% effective tracing), simulation suggested that control costs of the outbreak significantly increase if tracing does not occur until day 10 as compared to the baseline of tracing on day 2. In addition, control costs are significantly increased if effectiveness were to drop to 30% as compared to the baseline of 90%. Results suggest potential benefits from rapid effective tracing in terms of reducing government control costs; however, a variety of other scenarios need to be explored before determining in which situations rapid effective trace-back capability is beneficial.

Individual genetic tagging for teleosts: an empirical validation and a guideline for ecologists.

The efficiency of individual genetic tagging was determined by using passive integrated transponders (PIT) as a comparative conventional tagging method. Fifty-five common dace Leuciscus leuciscus were captured in the wild, PIT tagged and fin clipped (for DNA analysis). Thirty fish were recaptured on three occasions and tissue samples were collected. Using 18 microsatellite loci, 79-94% of the recaptures were correctly assigned. Experience with scoring L. leuciscus microsatellites led to more individuals correctly assigned. Allowing matches that differed by one or two alleles resulted in 100% of all recaptures successfully assigned irrespective of the observer. Reducing the set of loci to five to six loci appropriately selected did not affect the assignment rate, demonstrating that costs can be subsequently reduced. Despite their potential benefits, the application of genetic tags for teleosts has been limited. Here, it was demonstrated that genetic tagging could be applied, and a clear guideline (flowchart) is provided on how this method can be developed for teleosts and other organisms, with subsequent practical applications to ecology, evolutionary biology and conservation management.

A system for implanting laboratory mice with light-activated microtransponders.

The mouse is the most commonly used laboratory animal, accounting for up to 80% of all mammals used in research studies. Because rodents generally are group-housed, an efficient system of uniquely identifying individual animals for use in research studies, breeding, and proper colony management is required. Several temporary and permanent methods (for example, ear punching and toe clipping) are available for labeling research mice and other small animals, each with advantages and disadvantages. This report describes a new radiofrequency identification tagging method that uses 500-µm, light-activated microtransponders implanted subcutaneously into the ear or tail of mice. The preferred location for implanting is in the side of the tail, because implantation at this site was simple to perform and was associated with shorter implantation times (average, 53 versus 325 s) and a higher success rate (98% versus 50%) compared with the ear. The main benefits of using light-activated microtransponders over other identification methods, including other radiofrequency identification tags, is their small size, which minimizes stress to the animals during implantation and low cost due to their one-piece (monolithic) design. In addition, the implantation procedure uses a custom-designed 21-gauge needle injector and does not require anesthetization of the mice. We conclude that this method allows improved identification and management of laboratory mice.

Optimal marking of threatened species to balance benefits of information with impacts of marking.

Marking animals so that they are uniquely identifiable provides information that may assist conservation efforts. Nevertheless, some methods used to mark animals can be harmful. We used mathematical methods to assess the trade-off between the impact of marking threatened species and the value of the information gained. We considered the case where 2 management strategies, each aiming to improve a species' survival rate, are implemented in an experimental phase. The results of the experiment were applied in a postexperimental management phase. We expressed the expected number of survivors in both phases mathematically, accounting for any mortality caused by the experiment, and determined the proportion of animals to mark to maximize this number. The optimal number of animals to mark increased with the number of individuals available for the experiment and with the number of individuals to be managed in the future. The optimal solution was to mark only 25% of the animals when there were 1000 individuals available for the experiment, the results were used to manage 2000 individuals, and marking caused mortality of 1%. Fewer animals were marked when there were fewer animals in either phase or when marking caused higher mortality. In the case of the Helmeted Honeyeater (Lichenostomus melanops cassidix), the optimal proportion to mark was <1 if the mortality rate was >0.15%-1%, with the threshold depending on the number of animals in the experimental and postexperimental phases. The trade-off between gaining more information about a species and possibly harming individuals of that species by marking them is difficult to assess subjectively. We show how to determine objectively the optimal proportion of animals to mark to enhance the management of threatened species.

Lifetime traceability of weaner pigs in concrete-based and deep-litter production systems in Australia.

A field study was conducted on a 2,300-sow piggery in southwestern New South Wales, Australia, over a 17-wk period (from weaning at 4 wk of age) to assess the suitability for lifetime traceability of weaners of 4 identification devices: 1) full duplex ear tag (FDX, Allflex), 2) half duplex ear tag designed for cattle (HDX, Leadertronic), 3) conventional ear tag (Leader), and 4) ear tattoo (Ketchum ear tattoo 101). Visual readability, retention rate, electronic failures, and adverse side effects were assessed at 8 wk after application at both sites and before slaughter at 14 or 17 wk after application at site A and site B, respectively. A total of 394 weaner pigs were randomly assigned after weaning to 6 treatment groups and reared either in small groups in intensive, indoor, concrete-based pens (n = 224; site A) or in a large group on deep litter (n = 170; site B). Visual readability was similar for all ear tag types before slaughter (P > 0.05); however, visual readability of the ear tattoo was lower (P < 0.05), with between 78.2 and 60.0% illegible due to ink fading. Few tags were lost in the 8-wk period after application; however, tag loss increased for each tag device after this period and varied with housing system. Conventional tag loss was greater among pigs housed at site A (29.0%) than in pigs housed at site B (4.9%) in the 6- to 9-wk period before slaughter. The overall readability of FDX and HDX tags did not differ (P > 0.05) between sites; however, overall readability of FDX tags at 98.4% was better (P < 0.05) than 71.8% for HDX tags. Tag costs ranged from $0.73 for the conventional ear tag to $2.42 for the HDX ear tag. The identification devices did not induce production-limiting adverse effects after they were applied. Under conditions of this study, FDX electronic ear tags were the most efficacious for lifetime identification of weaner pigs on-farm.

Assessment of the management practices facilitating the establishment and spread of exotic diseases of pigs in the Sydney region.

OBJECTIVE: To assess management factors that would influence the establishment and spread of exotic diseases in pigs in the Sydney region. DESIGN: Saleyard and pig producer practices that could assist the initiation and subsequent spread of exotic diseases in pigs were surveyed and assessed over a 12 month period. PROCEDURE: Two saleyards in the Sydney region selling pigs were attended weekly for 12 months (2002-2003) to collect details on vendors and purchasers of pigs. Pig producer locations were mapped. All pig farmers on the Department of Primary Industries temporary brand register were surveyed to record management practices and knowledge of exotic diseases. Swine brands were inspected to determine their quality as a tracing mechanism. RESULTS: There were 101 pig sale days during the survey period with 13,869 pigs sold. There were 305 vendors, of whom 95% were identifiable through saleyard records. However, only 40% of the 377 purchasers were identifiable. More than one third of the 1749 transactions were for cash without the identity of the purchaser being recorded at the saleyards. Some 3% of pigs failed to sell and were returned to the property of origin. A total of 64 of 132 pig producers in the Sydney region were surveyed and 52 responded with survey information. The production systems of pig producers were predominately intensive or semi-intensive (88%) with 69% of these operators being small hobby producers. Pigs were mostly fed household and commercial scraps that were free of meat scraps, however, 2 producers were found to be feeding meat scraps (swill) illegally. Some 56% of producers surveyed did not have a tattoo swine brand and of the 23 producers with registered brands, 3 were not available for inspection or were not functional and 2 used the brand irregularly. CONCLUSION: This survey has identified factors that would assist the establishment and spread of vesicular and other exotic diseases in pigs. The factors included feeding meat scraps (swill), poor farmer knowledge of exotic diseases, ineffective pig owner identification at saleyards, the practice of cash sales that precluded the collection of purchaser details, and inadequate identification of pigs. Tracing the movements of pigs under these circumstances would be difficult.

Hot iron branding--not a reasonable requirement for international trade in live ruminants.

"Brand" means a permanent identification mark of which the letters, numbers and figures used are each three (3) inches or more in length or diameter and are humanely burned into the hide of a live animal with a hot iron or tattoo or caustic chemical substance and is to be considered in relation to its location on the animal and the term relates to both the mark and location.

Global trade requirements and compliance with World Trade Organization agreements: the role of tracing animals and animal products.

The use of a measure incorporating traceability that directly or indirectly affects international trade is permitted under the World Trade Organization Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, provided that the measure is applied in accordance with the provisions of the Agreement. These provisions state that the measure must be necessary, scientifically justified, no more trade restrictive than required and consistent with the appropriate level of protection of the importing country. If requested, importing countries are required to assess claims by exporting countries regarding an alternative measure(s) providing an equivalent level of protection or with regard to regionalisation.

Traceability in cattle and small ruminants in Canada.

Traceback systems for cattle and small ruminants are of international concern after the outbreaks of bovine spongiform encephalopathy in the European Union and foot and mouth disease in the United Kingdom and South America. Implementation of a national or international identification system depends on meeting a balance between cost, reliability/durability, ease of use, data transfer speed, protection from fraud, avoidance of entry into the food chain and animal welfare issues. As of 1 January 2001, Canada has instituted a national identification programme for cattle, which will have annual operating and administrative costs of Can$0.20 per head, excluding ear tags. The system will provide herd of origin traceback and individual animal identification by ear tags for all beef cattle. A number of identification technologies are available that would have advantages over visual tags, but these are currently too costly without government support (electronic identification, deoxyribonucleic acid [DNA] fingerprinting), too slow (DNA fingerprinting) or have not been tested sufficiently (retinal imaging) to warrant mandatory inclusion in a national traceback/identification system.

Tracing systems used during the epidemic of classical swine fever in the Netherlands, 1997-1998.

Any outbreak of an animal disease classified as a List A disease by the Office International des Epizooties, such as classical swine fever (CSF), has severe consequences for animal welfare, livestock production, exports of animals and animal products and the environment. Experience shows that early detection and response to a suspected disease outbreak will maximise the effectiveness of the emergency response actions and minimise the social, economic and environmental costs associated with the outbreak. The development and implementation of measures designed to minimise the risk of diseases entering a country or region has been the predominant animal health management strategy in most countries. However, even the strongest preventive management systems do not guarantee that outbreaks of animal diseases will not occur. Tracing, a procedure that begins with a known infected individual, herd or flock, and which traces all possible locational and interactive exposures in both directions, back towards the source and forward to contacts, is the backbone of disease emergency management. The authors provide an introduction to, and general overview of, tracking and tracing systems used during a recent epidemic of CSF in the Netherlands from 1997 to 1998.