The impact of a minimum unit price on wholesale alcohol supply trends in the Northern Territory, Australia.

OBJECTIVE: The Northern Territory (NT) Government introduced a minimum unit price (MUP) of $1.30 per standard drink (10g pure alcohol) explicitly aimed at reducing the consumption of cheap wine products from October 2018. We aimed to assess the impact of the NT MUP on estimates of beverage-specific population-adjusted alcohol consumption using wholesale alcohol supply data. METHODS: Interrupted time series analyses were conducted to examine MUP effects on trends in estimated per capita alcohol consumption (PCAC) for cask wine, total wine and total alcohol, across the NT and in the Darwin/Palmerston region. RESULTS: Significant step decreases were found for cask wine and total wine PCAC in Darwin/Palmerston and across the Northern Territory. PCAC of cask wine decreased by 50.6% in the NT, and by 48.8% in Darwin/Palmerston compared to the prior year. PCAC for other beverages (e.g. beer) were largely unaffected by MUP. Overall, PCAC across the Territory declined, but not in Darwin/Palmerston. CONCLUSION: With minimal implementation costs, the Northern Territory Government's MUP policy successfully targeted and reduced cask wine and total wine consumption. Cask wine, in particular, almost halved in Darwin/Palmerston where the impact of the MUP was able to be determined and considering other interventions. Implications for public health: Implementation of a minimum unit price for retail alcohol sales is a cost-effective way to reduce the consumption of high alcohol content and high-risk products, such as cheap cask wine.

Alcohol excise taxes as a percentage of retail alcohol prices in 26 OECD countries.

BACKGROUND: Many countries have implemented alcohol excise taxes. However, measures of excise taxes as a percentage of alcohol prices have not been systematically studied. METHODS: Data on the retail prices of alcoholic beverages sold in stores and excise taxes in 26 countries during 2003-2018 was from the Economist Intelligence Unit price city data and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) tax database. The percentages of excise taxes in off-premise retail prices were derived as the ratio of taxes to prices at different price levels. Changes of excise taxes over time were assessed using negative binominal regressions. RESULTS: The percentage of excise taxes in average off-premise alcohol prices was from 5 % in Luxembourg to 59 % in Iceland for beer, and from 0 % in France to 26 % in Iceland for wine. Excise taxes accounted for 5% of discount liquor prices in Czech Republic to 41 % in Sweden for Cognac, for 19 % in the United States (US) to 67 % in Sweden for Gin, for 13 % in the US to 63 % in Australia for Scotch Whisky six years old, and for 6 % in Iceland to 76 % in Sweden for Liqueur Cointreau. There were no significant changes in the percentage of excise taxes in alcohol prices over time in most countries except for Nordic countries. While wine had the lowest excise taxes, liquors had the highest tax burden. CONCLUSION: Tax burden on alcoholic beverages is low in OECD countries, indicating ample room for increasing alcohol excise taxes, particularly for beer and wine in those countries.

Evaluation of Alcohol Taxes as a Public Health Opportunity to Reduce Liver Transplant Listings for Alcohol-Related Liver Disease.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol-related liver disease (ALD) is a leading indication for liver transplantation. METHODS: State consumption of spirits, wine, and beer was determined from published sources. Excise and ad valorem alcohol taxes of spirits, wine, and beer were calculated following standard practices and correlated using multiple logistic regression models to 2002 to 2015 ALD transplant listing data from the United Network for Organ Sharing database. RESULTS: 21.22% (29,161/137,440) of transplant listings were for ALD. Increased consumption of spirits was associated with increased ALD transplant listings (odds ratio [OR]: 1.67; 95% CI: 1.12 to 2.49, p = 0.01), but wine and beer consumption did not have a statistically significant association with ALD transplant listings. Spirits excise taxes on- and off-premise were inversely associated with ALD transplant listing (OR: 0.79 and 0.82, respectively, both p < 0.02). Beer and wine taxes were not significantly associated with ALD transplant listings. CONCLUSIONS: Transplant listings for ALD are directly associated with spirit consumption and inversely associated with spirits excise taxes. These findings suggest a possible public health benefit of increasing excise taxes for spirits.

Neighbourhood context and binge drinking from adolescence into early adulthood in a US national cohort.

BACKGROUND: Underage binge drinking is a serious health concern that is likely influenced by the neighbourhood environment. However, longitudinal evidence has been limited and few studies have examined time-varying neighbourhood factors and demographic subgroup variation. METHODS: We investigated neighbourhood influences and binge drinking in a national cohort of US 10th grade students at four times (2010-2014; n = 2745). We estimated odds ratios (OR) for past 30-day binge drinking associated with neighbourhood disadvantage, personal and property crime (quartiles), and number of liquor, beer and wine stores within 5 km, and then evaluated whether neighbourhood associations differ by age, sex and race/ethnicity. RESULTS: Neighbourhood disadvantage was associated with binge drinking before 18 [OR = 1.54; 95% confidence interval (1.14, 2.08)], but not after 18 years of age. Property crime in neighbourhoods was associated with a higher odds of binge drinking [OR = 1.54 (0.96, 2.45)], an association that was stronger in early adulthood [4th vs 1st quartile: OR = 1.77 (1.04, 3.03)] and among Whites [4th vs 1st quartile: OR = 2.46 (1.03, 5.90)]. Higher density of liquor stores predicted binge drinking among Blacks [1-10 stores vs none: OR = 4.31 (1.50, 12.36)] whereas higher density of beer/wine stores predicted binge drinking among Whites [one vs none for beer: OR = 2.21 (1.06, 4.60); for wine: OR = 2.04 (1.04, 4.03)]. CONCLUSIONS: Neighbourhood conditions, particularly those related to economic circumstances, crime and alcohol outlet density, were related to binge drinking among young adults, but associations varied across age and individual characteristics.

The Composition and Magnitude of Alcohol Taxes in States: Do They Cover Alcohol-Related Costs?

OBJECTIVE: At least one type of tax is applied to the sale of alcoholic beverages in all U.S. states. The purpose of this study was to characterize the composition and magnitude of alcohol taxes in states and to assess the relationship between total alcohol taxes (federal plus state) and the cost of excessive drinking. METHOD: The amount of tax (in dollars per standard drink) by state was estimated from data on state ad valorem excise, specific excise, and sales taxes in 2010 obtained from the Alcohol Policy Information System and Tax Foundation. These taxes were summed, and specific excise taxes were assessed as a proportion of total state taxes. Tax data on beer were analyzed for all 50 states. Tax data for wine and distilled spirits were restricted to the 32 license states and Washington, D.C., with fully privatized distribution systems. Total alcohol taxes for the 32 license states were compared on a per-drink basis with published state estimates of the cost of excessive drinking in these states in 2010. RESULTS: Specific excise taxes accounted for a weighted median of 20.1% of total state alcohol tax revenue in the 32 license states and Washington, D.C. The median total alcohol tax per drink (based on all federal and state taxes) was $0.21, which accounted for 26.7% of the median cost to government and 10.3% of the median total economic cost of excessive drinking. CONCLUSIONS: Specific excise taxes account for one fifth of state alcohol taxes in the 32 license states; but even considering all tax types, total alcohol taxes account for only one tenth of alcohol-related costs.

Do beer and wine respond to price and tax changes in Vietnam? Evidence from the Vietnam Household Living Standards Survey.

OBJECTIVE: To provide the first ever published estimates of the price and expenditure elasticities of demand for beer and wine in Vietnam and thereby contribute to policy initiatives aimed at reducing the excessive consumption of alcohol. METHODS: We use a linear approximation of the Almost Ideal Demand System and data from the Vietnam Household Living Standards Survey for 2010, 2012 and 2014. RESULTS: We find that the demand for beer and wine in Vietnam is price and expenditure inelastic with average price elasticities of -0.283 and -0.317 and average expenditure elasticities of 0.401 and 0.156, respectively. That is, we find that beer and wine consumption decline whenever their respective prices increase and their consumption increases whenever expenditure rises. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the study lend confidence to calls for increased taxation of alcoholic products on public health grounds in Vietnam.

Characterization of Key Aroma Compounds in a Commercial Rum and an Australian Red Wine by Means of a New Sensomics-Based Expert System (SEBES)-An Approach To Use Artificial Intelligence in Determining Food Odor Codes.

Although to date more than 10 000 volatile compounds have been characterized in foods, a literature survey has previously shown that only 226 aroma compounds, assigned as key food odorants (KFOs), have been identified to actively contribute to the overall aromas of about 200 foods, such as beverages, meat products, cheeses, or baked goods. Currently, a multistep analytical procedure involving the human olfactory system, assigned as Sensomics, represents a reference approach to identify and quantitate key odorants, as well as to define their sensory impact in the overall food aroma profile by so-called aroma recombinates. Despite its proven effectiveness, the Sensomics approach is time-consuming because repeated sensory analyses, for example, by GC/olfactometry, are essential to assess the odor quality and potency of each single constituent in a given food distillate. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to develop a fast, but Sensomics-based expert system (SEBES) that is able to reliably predict the key aroma compounds of a given food in a limited number of runs without using the human olfactory system. First, a successful method for the quantitation of nearly 100 (out of the 226 known KFOs) components was developed in combination with a software allowing the direct use of the identification and quantitation data for the calculation of odor activity values (OAV; ratio of concentration to odor threshold). Using a rum and a wine as examples, the quantitative results obtained by the new SEBES method were compared to data obtained by applying an aroma extract dilution analysis and stable isotope dilution assays required in the classical Sensomics approach. A good agreement of the results was found with differences below 20% for most of the compounds considered. By implementing the GC × GC data analysis software with the in-house odor threshold database, odor activity values (ratio of concentration to odor threshold) were directly displayed in the software pane. The OAVs calculated by the software were in very good agreement with data manually calculated on the basis of the data obtained by SIDA. Thus, it was successfully shown that it is possible to characterize key food odorants with one single analytical platform and without using the human olfactory system, that is, by "artificial intelligence smelling".

Benchmarking laboratory-scale pomegranate vinegar against commercial wine vinegars: antioxidant activity and chemical composition.

BACKGROUND: There is growing interest in the beneficial health effects of certain fruits, such as pomegranate, and their by-products, like vinegar. Vinegars contain antioxidant compounds such as polyphenols, which can scavenge free radicals in the body. In this study, the antioxidant properties (2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl scavenging capacities) and global polyphenolic composition of a new functional product, namely a pomegranate vinegar produced in the laboratory from the Gabsi variety, were evaluated and compared with those of commercial wine vinegars (Sherry and Rioja red wine Spanish vinegars). The evolution of the polyphenolic and volatile compositions during production of the pomegranate vinegar was also studied. RESULTS: The results indicate that pomegranate contained a relatively stable total phenolic content that is suitable for the elaboration of vinegar and that this product had an antioxidant capacity comparable to, or even better than, that observed for aged wine vinegars. Regarding the volatiles profile, a high proportion of esters (close to 50%), in relation to alcohols and fatty acids, was observed for pomegranate vinegar, and this is consistent with the high red fruits character identified by sensory analysis. CONCLUSION: Pomegranate vinegar produced in the laboratory has an antioxidant activity and a global phenolic content similar to those of red wine vinegars and higher than most of the white wine vinegars studied. The pomegranate vinegar retained the red fruit sensory character of pomegranate fruit. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Profiling wines in China for the biogenic amines: A nationwide survey and pharmacokinetic fate modelling.

Biogenic amines (BAs), a class of nitrogenous compounds that are frequently detected in wine, pose adverse effects to humans. However, with the largest red wine consumption in the world, little is known about national profiles correlating BAs in wines to toxicological/health risks in China. In this study, we conducted a nationwide survey of commercially available wines for the occurrence of BAs. Our sampling campaign covered >90% of wine brands (n = 456) in China in a three year span (2014-2016). The target BAs included tryptamine, phenylethylamine, putrescine, cadaverine, histamine, tyramine, spermidine and spermine. In order to quantitatively characterize the potential risk and/or support regulatory decision-making, chronic and acute BA exposure scenarios were developed and simulated with a physiologically based pharmacokinetic model. The model described the fate and transport of BAs within human body using physical descriptions of relevant processes. These results provided baseline data that are needed for the risk assessment of dietary uptake of BAs and evaluating winemaking processes by food safety authorities.

Erosion of State Alcohol Excise Taxes in the United States.

OBJECTIVE: In the United States, excessive alcohol consumption is responsible for 88,000 deaths annually and cost $249 billion, or $2.05 per drink, in 2010. Specific excise taxes, the predominant form of alcohol taxation in the United States, are based on the volume of alcohol sold rather than a percentage of price and can thus degrade over time because of inflation. The objective of this study was to describe changes in inflation-adjusted state alcohol excise taxes on a beverage-specific basis. METHOD: State-level data on specific excise taxes were obtained from the Alcohol Policy Information System and the Tax Foundation. Excise tax rates were converted into the tax per standard U.S. drink (14 g of ethanol) for beer, wine, and distilled spirits, and converted into 2015 dollars using annual Consumer Price Index data. RESULTS: Across U.S. states, the average state alcohol excise tax per drink in 2015 was $0.03 for beer, $0.05 for distilled spirits, and $0.03 for wine. From 1991 to 2015, the average inflation-adjusted (in 2015 dollars) state alcohol excise tax rate declined 30% for beer, 32% for distilled spirits, and 27% for wine. Percentage declines in state excise taxes since their inception were more than twice as large as those from 1991 to 2015. CONCLUSIONS: In 2015, average state specific excise taxes were $0.05 or less per standard drink across all beverage types and have experienced substantial inflation-adjusted declines.

Alcohol Consumption and the Physical Availability of Take-Away Alcohol: Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses of the Days and Hours of Sale and Outlet Density.

OBJECTIVE: Systematic reviews and meta-analyses were completed studying the effect of changes in the physical availability of take-away alcohol on per capita alcohol consumption. Previous reviews examining this topic have not focused on off-premise outlets where take-away alcohol is sold and have not completed meta-analyses. METHOD: Systematic reviews were conducted separately for policies affecting the temporal availability (days and hours of sale) and spatial availability (outlet density) of take-away alcohol. Studies were included up to December 2015. Quality criteria were used to select articles that studied the effect of changes in these policies on alcohol consumption with a focus on natural experiments. Random-effects meta-analyses were applied to produce the estimated effect of an additional day of sale on total and beverage-specific consumption. RESULTS: Separate systematic reviews identified seven studies regarding days and hours of sale and four studies regarding density. The majority of articles included in these systematic reviews, for days/hours of sale (7/7) and outlet density (3/4), concluded that restricting the physical availability of take-away alcohol reduces per capita alcohol consumption. Meta-analyses studying the effect of adding one additional day of sale found that this was associated with per capita consumption increases of 3.4% (95% CI [2.7, 4.1]) for total alcohol, 5.3% (95% CI [3.2, 7.4]) for beer, 2.6% (95% CI [1.8, 3.5]) for wine, and 2.6% (95% CI [2.1, 3.2]) for spirits. The small number of included studies regarding hours of sale and density precluded meta-analysis. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest that decreasing the physical availability of take-away alcohol will decrease per capita consumption. As decreasing per capita consumption has been shown to reduce alcohol-related harm, restricting the physical availability of take-away alcohol would be expected to result in improvements to public health.

Sensory characterization of the astringency of commercial Uruguayan Tannat wines.

Astringency is one of the most important characteristics that define the quality of red wine, and is of particular relevance for Tannat, Uruguayan emblematic red wine variety. Astringency is a time-dependant and complex sensory characteristic, related to several sensations, or sub-qualities, that can be simultaneously perceived. The aim of the present study was to obtain a sensory characterization of the astringency of commercial Uruguayan Tannat wines. Forty samples with different characteristics in terms of vintage, price segment and aging in oak barrels were assessed by a panel of 9 trained assessors. Total astringency intensity was evaluated using time-intensity (TI), while astringency sub-qualities were described using a check-all-that-apply (CATA) question composed of sixteen terms. TI and the CATA question provided different information on the astringency of Tannat wines. Regarding global astringency, samples mainly differed in intensity-related parameters rather than in the development of astringency over time, although the variability was moderate. A wide range of sub-qualities, from silky and velvety to harsh and aggressive were used to describe the astringency of the evaluated wines. Four groups of samples with different astringency characteristics were identified, but this sorting was not related to vintage, price segment or aging in oak barrels. Further research is necessary to better understand how astringency characteristics are influenced by production variables, and to understand their relationship to consumers' and experts' perceived quality of Tannat wines.

Wineries Evaluation of Costs and Benefits of Sustainability Certification Program: The Case of Terra Vitis in France.

BACKGROUND: The current paper analyses the evaluation of the costs and benefits of French wineries (N=69) participating in the sustainability program Terra Vitis, a widespread environmental certification scheme within the French wine industry. METHOD: An online questionnaire was sent to all Terra Vitis participants, in order to analyse the evaluation of economic costs and benefits (together with environmental benefits) as perceived by wineries. RESULTS: Our findings reveal that older participants in the scheme (over 5 years), firms with higher export share (>40% of annual turnover) and cooperative wineries tend to be keener to assign a positive evaluation to the benefits/costs ratio in both the vineyard and the winery. CONCLUSION: In the context of increasing concerns regarding the economic and environmental performance of the French agricultural sector, such findings and also the patent research could be useful for policy makers and entrepreneurs in defining mainstream normative and corporate strategies.

Impact of Maryland's 2011 alcohol sales tax increase on alcoholic beverage sales.

BACKGROUND: Increasing alcohol taxes has proven effective in reducing alcohol consumption, but the effects of alcohol sales taxes on sales of specific alcoholic beverages have received little research attention. Data on sales are generally less subject to reporting biases than self-reported patterns of alcohol consumption. OBJECTIVES: We aimed to assess the effects of Maryland's July 1, 2011 three percentage point increase in the alcohol sales tax (6-9%) on beverage-specific and total alcohol sales. METHODS: Using county-level data on Maryland's monthly alcohol sales in gallons for 2010-2012, by beverage type, multilevel mixed effects multiple linear regression models estimated the effects of the tax increase on alcohol sales. We controlled for seasonality, county characteristics, and national unemployment rates in the main analyses. RESULTS: In the 18 months after the tax increase, average per capita sales of spirits were 5.1% lower (p < 0.001), beer sales were 3.2% lower (p < 0.001), and wine sales were 2.5% lower (p < 0.01) relative to what would have been expected from sales trends in the 18 months prior to the tax increase. Overall, the alcohol sales tax increase was associated with a 3.8% decline in total alcohol sold relative to what would have been expected based on sales in the prior 18 months (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: The findings suggest that increased alcohol sales taxes may be as effective as excise taxes in reducing alcohol consumption and related problems. Sales taxes also have the added advantages of rising with inflation and taxing the highest priced beverages most heavily.

Reducing Information Gap and Increasing Market Orientation in the Agribusiness Sector: Some Evidences from Apulia Region.

BACKGROUND: Market orientation plays a crucial role in reinforcing firm's competitive advantage; nevertheless, marketing myopia can negatively affect a clear perception of the market. METHODS: An organization that defines itself by product rather than by market terms is probably affected by marketing myopia, a narrowness of mind towards any newness - newness respect to firms' convincement and routines - coming from the external environment. In that context some scientific relevant developments that comes from recent patents have been considered. This paper explores the determinants of marketing myopia in the Apulia wine business (South Italy). RESULTS: The aim of this paper is to describe how experiential research based on Consumer Science research tools, can facilitate a better market knowledge. Experimental sessions carried out in 2013 in Apulia with a group of professionals from the oil and wine sectors clearly demonstrate how country of origin effect can improve marketing myopia. CONCLUSION: Through a protocol based on an "academicians - practitioners" model, professionals can be facilitated in their strategy formulation.

Tannin profile of different Monastrell wines and its relation to projected market prices.

This study focuses on the differences or similarities in tannin composition and concentration in Monastrell wines from different wineries from the same geographic area and, within each winery, from wines elaborated based on different projected market prices, to determine whether there is any relationship between the wine tannin composition and the projected price. The tannin composition of the different wines, all of them analyzed at the same point during winemaking, indicated that those elaborated as premium wines presented higher phenol and tannin contents. The mean degree of polymerization of these wines was also positively related with the projected price, which agreed with the results obtained by size exclusion chromatography, that showed that wines with high projected prices had a higher proportion of polymeric tannins, suggesting that techniques favoring the extraction of skin tannins were mostly used in those wines projected as premium wines, probably looking for greater mouthfeel complexity.

Drivers of high-involvement consumers' intention to buy PDO wines: Valpolicella PDO case study.

BACKGROUND: This study investigates whether different sensory profiles of wines belonging to the same Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) are perceived as different products by consumers. It identifies the drivers of consumers' intention to buy preferred wines. Descriptive sensory analysis, consumer tests and consumer interviews were conducted to reach research aims. To perform the consumer tests and interviews, 443 consumers participated in the survey. The tasted wines comprised five samples representative of Valpolicella PDO wine. Analysis of variance tests, principal component analysis and linear and logit regressions were employed to verify the research hypotheses. RESULTS: The results demonstrated: (1) different sensory profiles exist within the Valpolicella PDO wine; (2) these sensory profiles result in consumers having the perception of diversified products; (3) the perception of differences was less marked for consumers than for trained assessors due to the different weight attributed to visual, aroma and the taste/mouthfeel hedonic dimensions; and (4) consumers' liking, as well as general perceptions, attitudes, preferences, wine knowledge and experience, contribute to consumers' intentions to buy more than the socio-demographic characteristics of consumers. CONCLUSION: The analysis of the drivers of consumers' intention to buy certain PDO wines provides new marketing insights into the roles of intrinsic quality, preferences and consumers' subjective characteristics in market segmentation. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.

Typical Vine or International Taste: Wine Consumers' Dilemma Between Beliefs and Preferences.

BACKGROUND: The wine-growing sector is probably one of the agricultural areas where the ties between product quality and territory are most evident. Geographical indication is a key element in this context, and previous literature has focused on demonstrating how certification of origin influences the wine purchaser's behavior. However, less attention has been devoted to understanding how the value of a given name of origin may or may not be determined by the various elements that characterize the typicality of the wine product on that territory: vines, production techniques, etc. METHODS: It thus seems interesting, in this framework, to evaluate the impacts of several characteristic attributes on the preferences of consumers. This paper will analyze, in particular, the role of the presence of autochthonous vines in consumers' choices. The connection between name of origin and autochthonous vines appears to be particularly important in achieving product "recognisability", while introducing "international" vines in considerable measure into blends might result in the loss of the peculiarity of certain characteristic and typical local productions. A standardization of taste could thus risk compromising the reputation of traditional production areas. The objective of this study is to estimate, through an experimental auction on the case study of Chianti, the differences in willingness to pay for wines produced with different shares of typical vines. RESULTS: The results show that consumers have a willingness to pay for wine produced with typical blends 34% greater than for wines with international blends. CONCLUSION: However, this difference is not confirmed by blind tasting, raising the issue of the relationship between exante expectations about vine typicality and real wine sensorial characteristics. Finally, some recent patents related to wine testing and wine packaging are reviewed.

Distributed Wireless Monitoring System for Ullage and Temperature in Wine Barrels.

This paper presents a multipurpose and low cost sensor for the simultaneous monitoring of temperature and ullage of wine in barrels in two of the most important stages of winemaking, that being fermentation and maturation. The distributed sensor subsystem is imbedded within the bung of the barrel and runs on battery for a period of at least 12 months and costs around $27 AUD for all parts. In addition, software was designed which allows for the remote transmission and easy visual interpretation of the data for the winemaker. Early warning signals can be sent when the temperature or ullage deviates from a winemakers expectations so remedial action can be taken, such as when topping is required or the movement of the barrels to a cooler cellar location. Such knowledge of a wine's properties or storage conditions allows for a more precise control of the final wine quality.