Exposure assessment of children to dietary mycotoxins: A pilot study conducted in Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil.

Exposure to mycotoxins through food is a major health concern, especially for youngsters. This study performed a preliminary investigation on children's exposure to dietary mycotoxins in Ribeirão Preto, Brazil. Sampling procedures were conducted between August and December 2022, to collect foods (N = 213) available for consumption in the households of children (N = 67), including preschoolers (aged 3-6 years, n = 21), schoolers (aged 7-10 years, n = 15), and adolescents (aged 11-17 years, n = 31) cared in the Vila Lobato Community Social Medical Center of Ribeirão Preto. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) was used to determine concentrations of the mycotoxins in foods. Mycotoxins measured in all foods comprised aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), zearalenone (ZEN), T-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol (DON) and ochratoxin A (OTA). Higher incidence and levels were found for FBs, ZEN, and DON in several commonly consumed foods. Furthermore, 32.86 % foods had two to four quantifiable mycotoxins in various combinations. The mean estimated daily intake (EDI) values were lower than the tolerable daily intake (TDI) for AFs, FBs, and ZEN, but higher than the TDI (1.0 µg/kg bw/day) for DON, hence indicating a health risk for all children age groups. Preschoolers and adolescents were exposed to DON through wheat products (EDIs: 2.696 ± 7.372 and 1.484 ± 2.395 µg/kg body weight (bw)/day, respectively), while schoolers were exposed through wheat products (EDI: 1.595 ± 1.748 µg/kg bw/day) and rice (EDI: 1.391 ± 1.876 µg/kg bw/day). The results indicate that wheat-based foods and rice may be risky to children, implying the need for stringent measures to avoid DON contamination in these products.

Probabilistic risk assessment of exposure to multiple mycotoxins in consumers of packaged and unpackaged spices in Iran.

The current study assessed the risk posed to Iranian consumers by oral exposure to a mixture of ten mycotoxins in 138 packaged and unpackaged spices collected from the Iran market. Concentrations of mycotoxins in samples were quantified by liquid chromatography, tandem mass spectrometry with triple quadrupole, and ion trap. Probabilistic health risks of oral exposure to these mycotoxins for Iranians were assessed under percent tolerable daily intake (TDI) and cancer risk scenarios. Mean concentrations of mycotoxins in both packaged and unpackaged spice samples showed statistically significant variation among different spice samples. Based on a Monte Carlo simulation model, at the 50th, 80th, and 95th centiles, oral consumption of the analyzed samples poses no carcinogenic risk for exposure to aflatoxin. Moreover, in both packaged and unpackaged samples, while the percent TDIs for ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, patulin, fumonisin B1, and fumonisin B2 were below 1.0 at the 50th, 80th, and 95th centiles, the value was above 1.0 for aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin B2, aflatoxin G1, and aflatoxin G2 at each of these centiles.

Natural Occurrence of Regulated and Emerging Mycotoxins in Wheat Grains and Assessment of the Risks from Dietary Mycotoxins Exposure in China.

Wheat grains are susceptible to contamination with various natural mycotoxins including regulated and emerging mycotoxins. This study surveyed the natural presence of regulated mycotoxins, such as deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN), and emerging mycotoxins such as beauvericin (BEA), enniatins (ENNs such as ENA, ENA1, ENB, ENB1) and Alternaria mycotoxins (i.e., alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), alternariol (AOH), tenuazonic acid (TeA), tentoxin (TEN), and altenuene (ALT)) in wheat grains randomly collected from eight provinces across China in 2021. The results revealed that each wheat grain sample was detected with at least one type of mycotoxin. The detection rates of these mycotoxins ranged from 7.1% to 100%, with the average occurrence level ranging from 1.11 to 921.8 µg/kg. DON and TeA were the predominant mycotoxins with respect to both prevalence and concentration. Approximately 99.7% of samples were found to contain more than one toxin, and the co-occurrence of ten toxins (DON + ZEN + ENA + ENA1 + ENB + ENB1 + AME + AOH + TeA + TEN) was the most frequently detected combination. The dietary exposure to different mycotoxins among Chinese consumers aged 4-70 years was as follows: 0.592-0.992 µg/kg b.w./day for DON, 0.007-0.012 µg/kg b.w./day for ZEN, 0.0003-0.007 µg/kg b.w./day for BEA and ENNs, 0.223-0.373 µg/kg b.w./day for TeA, and 0.025-0.041 µg/kg b.w./day for TEN, which were lower than the health-based guidance values for each mycotoxin, with the corresponding hazard quotient (HQ) being far lower than 1, implying a tolerable health risk for Chinese consumers. However, the estimated dietary exposure to AME and AOH was in the range of 0.003-0.007 µg/kg b.w./day, exceeding the Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) value of 0.0025 µg/kg b.w./day, demonstrating potential dietary risks for Chinese consumers. Therefore, developing practical control and management strategies is essential for controlling mycotoxins contamination in the agricultural systems, thereby ensuring public health.

Mycotoxins in Rice Correlate with Other Contaminants? A Pilot Study of the Portuguese Scenario and Human Risk Assessment.

Rice is the second most important cereal crop and is vital for the diet of billions of people. However, its consumption can increase human exposure to chemical contaminants, namely mycotoxins and metalloids. Our goal was to evaluate the occurrence and human exposure of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), and inorganic arsenic (InAs) in 36 rice samples produced and commercialized in Portugal and evaluate their correlation. The analysis of mycotoxins involved ELISA, with limits of detection (LODs) of 0.8, 1 and 1.75 µg kg-1 for OTA, AFB1, and ZEN, respectively. InAs analysis was carried out by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS; LOD = 3.3 µg kg-1). No sample showed contamination by OTA. AFB1 was present in 2 (4.8%) samples (1.96 and 2.20 µg kg-1), doubling the European maximum permitted level (MPL). Concerning ZEN, 88.89% of the rice samples presented levels above the LOD up to 14.25 µg kg-1 (average of 2.75 µg kg-1). Regarding InAs, every sample presented concentration values above the LOD up to 100.0 µg kg-1 (average of 35.3 µg kg-1), although none surpassed the MPL (200 µg kg-1). No correlation was observed between mycotoxins and InAs contamination. As for human exposure, only AFB1 surpassed the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake. Children were recognized as the most susceptible group.

Contamination and Health Risk Assessment of Multiple Mycotoxins in Edible and Medicinal Plants.

Edible and medicinal plants (EMPs) are widely used but are easily infected by harmful fungi which produce mycotoxins. Herein, 127 samples from 11 provinces were collected to investigate 15 mycotoxins based on geographic, demographic, processing, and risk characteristics. A total of 13 mycotoxins were detected, and aflatoxin B1 (0.56~97.00 µg/kg), deoxynivalenol (9.41~1570.35 µg/kg), fumonisin B1 (8.25~1875.77 µg/kg), fumonisin B2 (2.74~543.01 µg/kg), ochratoxin A (0.62~19.30 µg/kg), and zearalenone (1.64~2376.58 µg/kg) occurred more frequently. Mycotoxin levels and species were significantly different by region, types of EMPs, and method of processing. The margin of exposure (MOE) values was well below the safe MOE (10,000). AFB1 exposure from Coix seed and malt consumption in China was of high health concern. The hazard Index (HI) method showed the range of 113.15~130.73% for malt, indicating a public health concern. In conclusion, EMPs should be concerned because of the cumulative effects of co-occurred mycotoxins, and safety management strategies should be developed in follow-up studies.

Assessment of occupational and dietary exposures of feed handling workers to mycotoxins in rural areas from São Paulo, Brazil.

In the current study, the occupational and dietary exposures of feed handling workers (N = 28) to aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), toxins T-2 and HT-2 were assessed for the first time in animal-producing farms and feed factories from São Paulo, Brazil. Mycotoxins in food (n = 244) and airborne dust (n = 27), as well as biomarkers in urine (n = 97) samples were determined by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. FBs were detected in all airborne dust samples, with concentrations ranging from 7.85 to 16,839 ng/m3. The mean probable daily intake (PDI) based on food data were 0.005, 0.769, 0.673 and 0.012 µg/kg of body weight (bw)/day for AFs, FBs, DON and ZEN, respectively. Mean PDI values obtained through urinary biomarkers were 0.29, 0.10, 0.50, 9.72 and 0.10 µg/kg body weight/day for AFB1, DON, OTA, FB1 and ZEN, respectively. The analyses based on urinary biomarkers revealed a potential health concern for OTA and FBs, although no potential health concern was observed with PDI calculated through food data. Results of this trial stress the need for preventive measures to avoid health risks of workers in Brazilian animal-producing farms and feed industries.

Assessment of multiple mycotoxin exposure and its association with food consumption: a human biomonitoring study in a pregnant cohort in rural Bangladesh.

Aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), citrinin (CIT), fumonisin B1 (FB1), zearalenone (ZEN), and deoxynivalenol (DON) are mycotoxins that may contaminate diets, especially in low-income settings, with potentially severe health consequences. This study investigates the exposure of 439 pregnant women in rural Bangladesh to 35 mycotoxins and their corresponding health risks and links their exposure to certain foods and local stimulants. Overall, 447 first-morning urine samples were collected from pregnant women between July 2018 and November 2019. Mycotoxin biomarkers were quantified by DaS-HPLC-MS/MS. Urinary concentration of frequently occurring mycotoxins was used to estimate dietary mycotoxin exposure. Median regression analyses were performed to investigate the association between the consumption of certain foods and local stimulants, and urinary concentration of frequently occurring mycotoxins. Only in 17 of 447 urine samples (4%) were none of the investigated mycotoxins detected. Biomarkers for six major mycotoxins (AFs, CIT, DON, FB1, OTA, and ZEN) were detected in the urine samples. OTA (95%), CIT (61%), and DON (6%) were most frequently detected, with multiple mycotoxins co-occurring in 281/447 (63%) of urine samples. Under the lowest exposure scenario, dietary exposure to OTA, CIT, and DON was of public health concern in 95%, 16%, and 1% of the pregnant women, respectively. Consumption of specific foods and local stimulants-betel nut, betel leaf, and chewing tobacco-were associated with OTA, CIT, and DON urine levels. In conclusion, exposure to multiple mycotoxins during early pregnancy is widespread in this rural community and represents a potential health risk for mothers and their offspring.

Level of contamination with deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and fumonisins in cereal products - assessment of consumer exposure.

OBJECTIVE: The main aim of this study was to determine the content of mycotoxins, such as: deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA) and fumonisins (FUM) in cereal products, and such products intended for infants. The secondary objective was to assess consumer exposure to the DON, ZEA and FUM occurring in cereal products, including those intended for infants and young children. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study included cereals and cereal products such as flours, grits, pastas, products of the bakery industry, snacks and cereal products intended for infants and young children, available in retail outlets in the Malopolska Province of Poland. DON content was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography with a DAD detector, while the contents of ZEA and FUM were detected by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. RESULTS: The determined concentration of mycotoxins exceeded the maximum level specified in food law in only two cases. DON level in maize flour was 1511.0 µg kg-1 and exceeded the maximal residue level (MRL) set at 750.0 µg kg-1. The value of MRL for ZEA was over the permissible value of 75.0 µg kg-1 in the maize flour sample only, and was 212.0 µg kg-1. None of the samples examined was beyond the permissible level of FUM. CONCLUSIONS: Levels higher than those permissible for the examined cereal products were noted in only two cases. FUMs were the most commonly found Fusarium mycotoxins, followed by DON and ZEA. The mean exposure doses of the assessed mycotoxins, resulting from the consumption of cereal products in the selected populations, were at low levels (reaching a maximum of 6.81%) and did not exceed the tolerable daily intake (TDI) or provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI). Therefore, the observed average chronic exposure dose not pose a health risk to consumers.

Structure-toxicity relationships, toxicity mechanisms and health risk assessment of food-borne modified deoxynivalenol and zearalenone: A comprehensive review.

Mycotoxin, as one of the most common pollutants in foodstuffs, poses great threat to food security and human health. Specifically, deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN)-two mycotoxin contaminants with considerable toxicity widely existing in food products-have aroused broad public concerns. Adding to this picture, modified forms of DON and ZEN, have emerged as another potential environmental and health threat, owing to their higher re-transformation rate into parent mycotoxins inducing accumulation of mycotoxin in humans and animals. Given this, a better understanding of the toxicity of modified mycotoxins is urgently needed. Moreover, the lack of toxicity data means a proper risk assessment of modified mycotoxins remains challenging. To better evaluate the toxicity of modified DON and ZEN, we have reviewed the relationship between their structures and toxicities. The toxicity mechanisms behind modified DON and ZEN have also been discussed; briefly, these involve acute, subacute, chronic, and combined toxicities. In addition, this review also addresses the global occurrence of modified DON and ZEN, and summarizes novel methods-including in silico analysis and implementation of relative potency factors-for risk assessment of modified DON and ZEN. Finally, the health risk assessment of modified DON and ZEN has also been discussed comprehensively.

Rapid, simultaneous detection of mycotoxins with smartphone recognition-based immune microspheres.

How to achieve simultaneous and rapid detection of various mycotoxins in food has important practical significance in the field of food processing and safety. In this paper, a smartphone immunoassay system based on hydrogel microspheres has been constructed to quickly detect two mycotoxins at the same time. The rapid detection system was reflected in the following three processes: (1) rapid separation of free matter after direct competition reaction based on hydrogel solid-phase carrier particles; (2) rapid detection process based on efficient catalytic function of enzymes; (3) fast capture and analysis of images based on smartphone software. Ochratoxin A (OTA) and zearalenone (ZEN) are secondary toxic metabolites of fungi that can contaminate a wide range of foods and feeds. OTA and ZEN were used as detection model molecules to verify the feasibility of the intelligent rapid detection system. The entire detection process was within 30 min, and the results were analyzed in only 10 s. Detection limits of mycotoxins OTA and ZEN are 0.7711 ng L-1 and 1.0391 ng L-1. The recoveries of both mycotoxins ranged from 76.72 to 122.05%. This study provides a universal rapid detection method for on-site application of large-scale food security testing. Schematic diagram of the construction of the smartphone detection system: The system is divided into three parts: detection, image capture and analysis, and result.

[Contamination of zearalenone and its dietary exposure assessment in coix seed in Shanghai].

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the zearalenone(ZEN) level in coix seed, and assess the risk of dietary exposure of ZEN in coix seed in Shanghai. METHODS: The ZEN contents of 147 coix seed samples collected in Shanghai were determined. The consumption data of 730 adults in Shanghai was collected by questionnaire survey with random sampling method. Dietary intake of ZEN from coix seed in Shanghai was simulated by Monte Carlo simulation. RESULTS: The total detection rate of ZEN in coix seed was 69. 39 %(102/147), with the content range of <1. 0-9361 µg/kg and the average value of 327. 7 µg/kg. The average exposure level of populations to ZEN in coix seed was 0. 0216 µg/(kg·d), which was much lower than the tolerable daily intake(TDI). The high exposure level(P95) of populations to ZEN in coix seed was 0. 0609 µg/(kg·d), which accounted for about 24% of TDI. There were about 1. 1% people with the dietary exposure to ZEN exceeding TDI on the basis of the ZEN contents in coix seed and consumption data of coix seed in Shanghai. CONCLUSION: The health risk of ZEN exposure of coix seed in Shanghai population is lower when taking coix seed regularly, and there are potential health risks when taking coix seed highly contaminated with ZEN at a higher dose for a long time.

Multi-Mycotoxin Occurrence and Exposure Assessment Approach in Foodstuffs from Algeria.

A survey on 120 cereal samples (barley, maize, rice and wheat) from Algerian markets has been carried out to evaluate the presence of 15 mycotoxins (ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, fumonisin B1 and B2, T-2 and HT-2 toxins, zearalenone, fusarenon X, citrinin, sterigmatocystin, enniatins A, A1, B and B1, and beauvericin). With this purpose, a QuEChERS-based extraction and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) were used. Analytical results showed that 78 cereal samples (65%) were contaminated with at least one toxin, while 50% were contaminated with three to nine mycotoxins. T-2 toxin, citrinin, beauvericin and deoxynivalenol were the most commonly found mycotoxins (frequency of 50%, 41.6%, 40.8% and 33.3%, respectively). Fumonisins (B1 + B2), enniatins B and B1, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone registered high concentrations (289-48878 µg/kg, 1.2-5288 µg/kg, 15-4569 µg/kg, 48-2055 µg/kg and 10.4-579 µg/kg, respectively). Furthermore, concentrations higher than those allowed by the European Union (EU) were observed in 21, 8 and 1 samples for fumonisins, zearalenone and deoxinivalenol, respectively. As a conclusion, the high levels of fumonisins (B1 + B2) in maize and deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and HT-2 + T-2 toxins in wheat, represent a health risk for the average adult consumer in Algeria. These results pointed out the necessity of a consistent control and the definition of maximum allowed levels for mycotoxins in Algerian foodstuffs.

Biosynthetic Mycotoxin Conjugate Mimetics-Mediated Green Strategy for Multiplex Mycotoxin Immunochromatographic Assay.

Various mycotoxins widely co-exist in agro-products, and their combined effects cause toxicity and potential carcinogenicity to humans and animals. In this work, we developed an economical and sensitive quantum dots (QDs)/QD microbead (QDs/QB)-based multiplex immunochromatographic assay (mICA) for the rapid detection of fumonisin B1 (FB1), zearalenone (ZEN), and ochratoxin A (OTA) without the building-up process of mycotoxin conjugates. QDs and QBs were selected as fluorescent reporters and conjugated with antimycotoxin monoclonal antibodies for improving sensitivity. Furthermore, phage-displayed FB1, ZEN, and OTA mimotope peptide-based soluble and monovalent fusions to maltose-binding protein (MBP) were applied onto the test line of the mICA as the mimetic coating antigen. Under the optimized conditions, the visual detection limits (vLODs) of peptide-MBP-based mICA could be obtained as 0.25 ng/mL for FB1, 3.0 ng/mL for ZEN, and 0.5 ng/mL for OTA within 10 min. The results for spiked real sample detection indicate good accuracy, reproducibility, and practicability. In addition, the proposed mICA was comparable with ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) in terms of reliability in detecting FB1, ZEN, and OTA using natural samples. From the point of promoting commercial production, these time-saving and low-cost peptide-MBP antigens applied in ICA might provide promising potential for promoting productivity and decreasing the cost of production.

Risk assessment for mycotoxin contamination in fish feeds in Europe.

Mycotoxins are difficult to monitor continuously, and a tool to assess the risk would help to judge if there is a particular risk due to the inclusion of certain feed ingredients. For this, the toxin contents of 97 commercial fish feeds have been estimated, and the most prominent toxins in fish feed are calculated to be deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins and enniatins. These pose a risk to fish well-being, as can be calculated by the Bayesian models for determining the critical concentrations 5% (CC5) for the different toxins. Besides fishmeal, wheat, soybean products and corn are regularly used as fish feed ingredients. The calculated scenarios show that fish are at high risk of toxin contamination if feed ingredients of low quality are chosen for feed production. Due to this, specific maximum allowable levels for several mycotoxins in fish feeds should be established.

Quantitative assessment of zearalenone in maize using multivariate algorithms coupled to Raman spectroscopy.

Zearalenone is a contaminant in food and feed products which are hazardous to humans and animals. This study explored the feasibility of the Raman rapid screening technique for zearalenone in contaminated maize. For representative Raman spectra acquisition, the ground maize samples were collected by extended sample area to avoid the adverse effect of heterogeneous component. Regression models were built with partial least squares (PLS) and compared with those built with other variable selection algorithms such as synergy interval PLS (siPLS), ant colony optimization PLS (ACO-PLS) and siPLS-ACO. SiPLS-ACO algorithm was superior to others in terms of predictive power performance for zearalenone analysis. The best model based on siPLS-ACO achieved coefficients of correlation (Rp) of 0.9260 and RMSEP of 87.9132 µg/kg in the prediction set, respectively. Raman spectroscopy combined multivariate calibration showed promising results for the rapid screening large numbers of zearalenone maize contaminations in bulk quantities without sample-extraction steps.

Assessment of Toxigenic Fusarium Species and Their Mycotoxins in Brewing Barley Grains.

Fusarium species threaten yield and quality of cereals worldwide due to their ability to produce mycotoxins and cause plant diseases. Trichothecenes and zearalenone are the most economically significant mycotoxins and are of particular concern in barley, maize and wheat. For this reason, the aim of this study was to characterize the Fusarium isolates from brewing barley and to assess deoxynivalenol and zearalenone contamination in grains. Characterization of the Fusarium strains was carried out by the phylogeny based on two loci (EF-1α and RPB2). Mycotoxin detection and quantification were performed by LC-MS. The results show that Fusarium was the predominant genus. Phylogenetic study demonstrated that the majority of the strains clustered within the Fusarium sambucinum species complex followed by the Fusarium tricinctum species complex. The results revealed high incidence of deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEA) contamination (90.6% and 87.5%, respectively). It was observed that 86% of the samples contaminated with ZEA were above the limits set by the EU and Brazilian regulations. These results may highlight the importance of controlling Fusarium toxins in barley, mainly because of its use in the brewing industry and the resistance of various mycotoxins to food processing treatments.

A critical evaluation of health risk assessment of modified mycotoxins with a special focus on zearalenone.

A comprehensive definition introducing the term "modified mycotoxins" to encompass all possible forms in which mycotoxins and their modifications can occur was recently proposed and has rapidly gained wide acceptance within the scientific community. It is becoming increasingly evident that exposure to such modified mycotoxins due to their presence in food and feed has the potential to pose a substantial additional risk to human and animal health. Zearalenone (ZEN) is a well-characterized Fusarium toxin. Considering the diversity of modified forms of ZEN occurring in food and feed, the toxicologically relevant endocrine activity of many of these metabolites, and the fact that modified forms add to a dietary exposure which approaches the tolerable daily intake by free ZEN alone, modified forms of ZEN present an ideal case study for critical evaluation of modified mycotoxins in food safety. Following a summary of recent scientific opinions of EFSA dealing with health risk assessment of ZEN alone or in combination with its modified forms, uncertainties and data gaps are highlighted. Issues essential for evaluation and prioritization of modified mycotoxins in health risk assessment are identified and discussed, including opportunities to improve exposure assessment using biomonitoring data. Further issues such as future consideration of combinatory effects of the parent toxin with its modified forms and also other compounds co-occurring in food and feed are addressed. With a particular focus on ZEN, the most pressing challenges associated with health risk assessment of modified mycotoxins are identified and recommendations for further research to fill data gaps and reduce uncertainties are made.

Occurrence and dietary exposure assessment of multiple mycotoxins in corn-based food products from Shandong, China.

This study was designed to investigate the occurrence and exposure assessment of multiple mycotoxins in corn-based food products from Shandong Province, China. Results demonstrated that the mean level of total mycotoxins in test samples was 197.2 µg/kg. The most frequently found mycotoxins were deoxynivalenol (96.7%) and fumonisin B1 (94.4%), with mean contamination levels of 65.24 and 128.2, respectively. Among these corn-based food products, thin corn pancake had the highest mean contamination (886.7 µg/kg), followed by wotou (143.7 µg/kg), corn cake (135.4 µg/kg) and mantou (63.73 µg/kg). The average exposure values to total fumonisins and deoxynivalenol were 0.05 and 0.02 µg/kg bw/day, which were lower than the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake values of 2 and 1 µg/kg bw/day, respectively, as established by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. In the future strict control and systematic monitoring are needed to secure food safety and human health.

Presence of Zearalenone in Cereal Grains and Its Exposure Risk Assessment in Indian Population.

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a toxic metabolite of Fusarium genera that frequently contaminates cereal grains. India being a tropical country provides suitable conditions for fungal invasion to the cereals. In the absence of any regulatory limits for ZEA in India, the present study was carried out to analyze the contamination levels of ZEA in different cereal samples consumed by Indian population and its exposure assessment through intake. Out of 117 cereal samples comprising of wheat, rice, corn, and oats, 70 (84%) were found to be positive for ZEA contamination, among which 24 (33%) samples exceeded the permissible limits proposed by European Union when analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography. The positive samples were further validated by Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (LC-MS) analysis. Based on the quantitative estimation of ZEA contamination in cereals and their daily consumption values, the probable daily intake of ZEA was found to be 16.9- and 7.9-fold higher in rice and wheat samples, respectively, than the tolerable daily intake prescribed by European Food Safety Authority. The presence of ZEA at high levels indicates a higher exposure risk for Indian population as wheat and rice are staple foods in India. Thus, there is an immediate need to set the permissible levels of ZEA in India to safeguard the health of 1.34 billion people. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: High levels of ZEA contaminated wheat and rice samples suggest that the consumers are at a greater exposure risk. The study will help the Indian regulatory bodies to set the permissible level of ZEA in different cereal grains so as to safeguard the health of common masses. This can happen by simply adopting to European Food Safety Authority standards or depending on the consumption pattern of food and its occurrence, the new safe limit can be prescribed in India like in other Asian countries.

Rapid and sensitive double-label based immunochromatographic assay for zearalenone detection in cereals.

A double-label immunochromatographic based assay (DL-ICA) was developed to monitor zearalenone (ZEN) levels in cereals, based on Eu3+ nanoparticles (EuNP). The DL-ICA exhibited excellent sensitivity, reliability and selectivity in real samples. It showed low limits of detection (0.21-0.25 µg/kg) and broad analytical ranges (up to 120 µg/kg). The total analytical time, including sample preparation and DL-ICA execution, was reduced by 15 min compared with HPLC. The recovery rates ranged from 95.0-118.4%, with relative standard deviations (RSD) <11.6%. Inter- and intra-day validations were assessed, recovery rates of 89.3-106.9% and RSD of 2.3-9.7% were obtained, suggesting considerable stability and reliability for the assay. An excellent correlation was observed between DL-ICA and a reference HPLC method (R2 = 0.9899). Compared to current immunoassays, the current DL-ICA is inexpensive, highly sensitive, and rapid. Therefore, DL-ICA constitutes a novel tool for monitoring mycotoxins in food and feed to ensure safety.