Thrombin cleavage of the hepatitis E virus polyprotein at multiple conserved locations is required for genome replication.

The genomes of positive-sense RNA viruses encode polyproteins that are essential for mediating viral replication. These viral polyproteins must undergo proteolysis (also termed polyprotein processing) to generate functional protein units. This proteolysis can be performed by virally-encoded proteases as well as host cellular proteases, and is generally believed to be a key step in regulating viral replication. Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a leading cause of acute viral hepatitis. The positive-sense RNA genome is translated to generate a polyprotein, termed pORF1, which is necessary and sufficient for viral genome replication. However, the mechanism of polyprotein processing in HEV remains to be determined. In this study, we aimed to understand processing of this polyprotein and its role in viral replication using a combination of in vitro translation experiments and HEV sub-genomic replicons. Our data suggest no evidence for a virally-encoded protease or auto-proteolytic activity, as in vitro translation predominantly generates unprocessed viral polyprotein precursors. However, seven cleavage sites within the polyprotein (suggested by bioinformatic analysis) are susceptible to the host cellular protease, thrombin. Using two sub-genomic replicon systems, we demonstrate that mutagenesis of these sites prevents replication, as does pharmacological inhibition of serine proteases including thrombin. Overall, our data supports a model where HEV uses host proteases to support replication and could have evolved to be independent of a virally-encoded protease for polyprotein processing.

Elimination of fibrin γ-chain cross-linking by FXIIIa increases pulmonary embolism arising from murine inferior vena cava thrombi.

The onset of venous thromboembolism, including pulmonary embolism, represents a significant health burden affecting more than 1 million people annually worldwide. Current treatment options are based on anticoagulation, which is suboptimal for preventing further embolic events. In order to develop better treatments for thromboembolism, we sought to understand the structural and mechanical properties of blood clots and how this influences embolism in vivo. We developed a murine model in which fibrin γ-chain cross-linking by activated Factor XIII is eliminated (FGG3X) and applied methods to study thromboembolism at whole-body and organ levels. We show that FGG3X mice have a normal phenotype, with overall coagulation parameters and platelet aggregation and function largely unaffected, except for total inhibition of fibrin γ-chain cross-linking. Elimination of fibrin γ-chain cross-linking resulted in thrombi with reduced strength that were prone to fragmentation. Analysis of embolism in vivo using Xtreme optical imaging and light sheet microscopy demonstrated that the elimination of fibrin γ-chain cross-linking resulted in increased embolization without affecting clot size or lysis. Our findings point to a central previously unrecognized role for fibrin γ-chain cross-linking in clot stability. They also indirectly indicate mechanistic targets for the prevention of thrombosis through selective modulation of fibrin α-chain but not γ-chain cross-linking by activated Factor XIII to reduce thrombus size and burden, while maintaining clot stability and preventing embolism.

Structural characterization of a novel GPVI-nanobody complex reveals a biologically active domain-swapped GPVI dimer.

Glycoprotein VI (GPVI) is the major signaling receptor for collagen on platelets. We have raised 54 nanobodies (Nb), grouped into 33 structural classes based on their complementary determining region 3 loops, against recombinant GPVI-Fc (dimeric GPVI) and have characterized their ability to bind recombinant GPVI, resting and activated platelets, and to inhibit platelet activation by collagen. Nbs from 6 different binding classes showed the strongest binding to recombinant GPVI-Fc, suggesting that there was not a single dominant class. The most potent 3, Nb2, 21, and 35, inhibited collagen-induced platelet aggregation with nanomolar half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values and inhibited platelet aggregation under flow. The binding KD of the most potent Nb, Nb2, against recombinant monomeric and dimeric GPVI was 0.6 and 0.7 nM, respectively. The crystal structure of monomeric GPVI in complex with Nb2 revealed a binding epitope adjacent to the collagen-related peptide (CRP) binding groove within the D1 domain. In addition, a novel conformation of GPVI involving a domain swap between the D2 domains was observed. The domain swap is facilitated by the outward extension of the C-C' loop, which forms the domain swap hinge. The functional significance of this conformation was tested by truncating the hinge region so that the domain swap cannot occur. Nb2 was still able to displace collagen and CRP binding to the mutant, but signaling was abolished in a cell-based NFAT reporter assay. This demonstrates that the C-C' loop region is important for GPVI signaling but not ligand binding and suggests the domain-swapped structure may represent an active GPVI conformation.

Plasmapheresis to remove amyloid fibrin(ogen) particles for treating the post-COVID-19 condition.

BACKGROUND: The post-COVID-19 condition (PCC) consists of a wide array of symptoms including fatigue and impaired daily living. People seek a wide variety of approaches to help them recover. A new belief, arising from a few laboratory studies, is that 'microclots' cause the symptoms of PCC. This belief has been extended outside these studies, suggesting that to recover people need plasmapheresis (an expensive process where blood is filtered outside the body). We appraised the laboratory studies, and it was clear that the term 'microclots' is incorrect to describe the phenomenon being described. The particles are amyloid and include fibrin(ogen); amyloid is not a part of a thrombus which is a mix of fibrin mesh and platelets. Initial acute COVID-19 infection is associated with clotting abnormalities; this review concerns amyloid fibrin(ogen) particles in PCC only. We have reported here our appraisal of laboratory studies investigating the presence of amyloid fibrin(ogen) particles in PCC, and of evidence that plasmapheresis may be an effective therapy to remove amyloid fibrin(ogen) particles for treating PCC. OBJECTIVES: Laboratory studies review To summarize and appraise the research reports on amyloid fibrin(ogen) particles related to PCC. Randomized controlled trials review To assess the evidence of the safety and efficacy of plasmapheresis to remove amyloid fibrin(ogen) particles in individuals with PCC from randomized controlled trials. SEARCH METHODS: Laboratory studies review We searched for all relevant laboratory studies up to 27 October 2022 using a comprehensive search strategy which included the search terms 'COVID', 'amyloid', 'fibrin', 'fibrinogen'. Randomized controlled trials review We searched the following databases on 21 October 2022: Cochrane COVID-19 Study Register; MEDLINE (Ovid); Embase (Ovid); and BIOSIS Previews (Web of Science). We also searched the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform and ClinicalTrials.gov for trials in progress. SELECTION CRITERIA: Laboratory studies review Laboratory studies that investigate the presence of amyloid fibrin(ogen) particles in plasma samples from patients with PCC were eligible. This included studies with or without controls. Randomized controlled trials review Studies were eligible if they were of randomized controlled design and investigated the effectiveness or safety of plasmapheresis for removing amyloid fibrin(ogen) particles for treating PCC. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors applied study inclusion criteria to identify eligible studies and extracted data. Laboratory studies review We assessed the risk of bias of included studies using pre-developed methods for laboratory studies. We planned to perform synthesis without meta-analysis (SWiM) as described in our protocol. Randomized controlled trials review We planned that if we identified any eligible studies, we would assess risk of bias and report results with 95% confidence intervals. The primary outcome was recovery, measured using the Post-COVID-19 Functional Status Scale (absence of symptoms related to the illness, ability to do usual daily activities, and a return to a previous state of health and mind). MAIN RESULTS: Laboratory studies review We identified five laboratory studies. Amyloid fibrin(ogen) particles were identified in participants across all studies, including those with PCC, healthy individuals, and those with diabetes. The results of three studies were based on visual images of amyloid fibrin(ogen) particles, which did not quantify the amount or size of the particles identified. Formal risk of bias assessment showed concerns in how the studies were conducted and reported. This means the results were insufficient to support the belief that amyloid fibrin(ogen) particles are associated with PCC, or to determine whether there is a difference in the amount or size of amyloid fibrin(ogen) particles in the plasma of people with PCC compared to healthy controls. Randomized controlled trials review We identified no trials meeting our inclusion criteria. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: In the absence of reliable research showing that amyloid fibrin(ogen) particles contribute to the pathophysiology of PCC, there is no rationale for plasmapheresis to remove amyloid fibrin(ogen) particles in PCC. Plasmapheresis for this indication should not be used outside the context of a well-conducted randomized controlled trial.

The Role of Fibrin(ogen) in Wound Healing and Infection Control.

Fibrinogen, one of the most abundant plasma proteins playing a key role in hemostasis, is an important modulator of wound healing and host defense against microbes. In the current review, we address the role of fibrin(ogen) throughout the process of wound healing and subsequent tissue repair. Initially fibrin(ogen) acts as a provisional matrix supporting incoming leukocytes and acting as reservoir for growth factors. It later goes on to support re-epithelialization, angiogenesis, and fibroplasia. Importantly, removal of fibrin(ogen) from the wound is essential for wound healing to progress. We also discuss how fibrin(ogen) functions through several mechanisms to protect the host against bacterial infection by providing a physical barrier, entrapment of bacteria in fibrin(ogen) networks, and by directing immune cell function. The central role of fibrin(ogen) in defense against bacterial infection has made it a target of bacterial proteins, evolved to interact with fibrin(ogen) to manipulate clot formation and degradation for the purpose of promoting microbial virulence and survival. Further understanding of the dual roles of fibrin(ogen) in wound healing and infection could provide novel means of therapy to improve recovery from surgical or chronic wounds and help to prevent infection from highly virulent bacterial strains, including those resistant to antibiotics.

Thrombus Structural Composition in Cardiovascular Disease.

Thrombosis is a major complication of cardiovascular disease, leading to myocardial infarction, acute ischemic stroke, or venous thromboembolism. Thrombosis occurs when a thrombus forms inside blood vessels disrupting blood flow. Developments in thrombectomy to remove thrombi from vessels have provided new opportunities to study thrombus composition which may help to understand mechanisms of disease and underpin improvements in treatments. We aimed to review thrombus compositions, roles of components in thrombus formation and stability, and methods to investigate thrombi. Also, we summarize studies on thrombus structure obtained from cardiovascular patients and animal models. Thrombi are composed of fibrin, red blood cells, platelets, leukocytes, and neutrophil extracellular traps. These components have been analyzed by several techniques, including scanning electron microscopy, laser scanning confocal microscopy, histochemistry, and immunohistochemistry; however, each technique has advantages and limitations. Thrombi are heterogenous in composition, but overall, thrombi obtained from myocardial infarction are composed of mainly fibrin and other components, including platelets, red blood cells, leukocytes, and cholesterol crystals. Thrombi from patients with acute ischemic stroke are characterized by red blood cell- and platelet-rich regions. Thrombi from patients with venous thromboembolism contain mainly red blood cells and fibrin with some platelets and leukocytes. Thrombus composition from patients with myocardial infarction is influenced by ischemic time. Animal thrombosis models are crucial to gain further mechanistic information about thrombosis and thrombus structure, with thrombi being similar in composition compared with those from patients. Further studies on thrombus composition and function are key to improve treatment and clinical outcome of thrombosis.

GPVI (Glycoprotein VI) Interaction With Fibrinogen Is Mediated by Avidity and the Fibrinogen αC-Region.

OBJECTIVE: GPVI (glycoprotein VI) is a key molecular player in collagen-induced platelet signaling and aggregation. Recent evidence indicates that it also plays important role in platelet aggregation and thrombus growth through interaction with fibrin(ogen). However, there are discrepancies in the literature regarding whether the monomeric or dimeric form of GPVI binds to fibrinogen at high affinity. The mechanisms of interaction are also not clear, including which region of fibrinogen is responsible for GPVI binding. We aimed to gain further understanding of the mechanisms of interaction at molecular level and to identify the regions on fibrinogen important for GPVI binding. Approach and Results: Using multiple surface- and solution-based protein-protein interaction methods, we observe that dimeric GPVI binds to fibrinogen with much higher affinity and has a slower dissociation rate constant than the monomer due to avidity effects. Moreover, our data show that the highest affinity interaction of GPVI is with the αC-region of fibrinogen. We further show that GPVI interacts with immobilized fibrinogen and fibrin variants at a similar level, including a nonpolymerizing fibrin variant, suggesting that GPVI binding is independent of fibrin polymerization. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the above findings, we conclude that the higher affinity of dimeric GPVI over the monomer for fibrinogen interaction is achieved by avidity. The αC-region of fibrinogen appears essential for GPVI binding. We propose that fibrin polymerization into fibers during coagulation will cluster GPVI through its αC-region, leading to downstream signaling, further activation of platelets, and potentially stimulating clot growth. Graphic Abstract: A graphic abstract is available for this article.

Nonredundant Roles of Platelet Glycoprotein VI and Integrin αIIbß3 in Fibrin-Mediated Microthrombus Formation.

OBJECTIVE: Fibrin is considered to strengthen thrombus formation via integrin αIIbß3, but recent findings indicate that fibrin can also act as ligand for platelet glycoprotein VI. Approach and Results: To investigate the thrombus-forming potential of fibrin and the roles of platelet receptors herein, we generated a range of immobilized fibrin surfaces, some of which were cross-linked with factor XIIIa and contained VWF-BP (von Willebrand factor-binding peptide). Multicolor microfluidics assays with whole-blood flowed at high shear rate (1000 s-1) indicated that the fibrin surfaces, regardless of the presence of factor XIIIa or VWF-BP, supported platelet adhesion and activation (P-selectin expression), but only microthrombi were formed consisting of bilayers of platelets. Fibrinogen surfaces produced similar microthrombi. Markedly, tiggering of coagulation with tissue factor or blocking of thrombin no more than moderately affected the fibrin-induced microthrombus formation. Absence of αIIbß3 in Glanzmann thrombasthenia annulled platelet adhesion. Blocking of glycoprotein VI with Fab 9O12 substantially, but incompletely reduced platelet secretion, Ca2+ signaling and aggregation, while inhibition of Syk further reduced these responses. In platelet suspension, glycoprotein VI blockage or Syk inhibition prevented fibrin-induced platelet aggregation. Microthrombi on fibrin surfaces triggered only minimal thrombin generation, in spite of thrombin binding to the fibrin fibers. CONCLUSIONS: Together, these results indicate that fibrin fibers, regardless of their way of formation, act as a consolidating surface in microthrombus formation via nonredundant roles of platelet glycoprotein VI and integrin αIIbß3 through signaling via Syk and low-level Ca2+ rises.

Cryoprecipitate transfusion in trauma patients attenuates hyperfibrinolysis and restores normal clot structure and stability: Results from a laboratory sub-study of the FEISTY trial.

BACKGROUND: Fibrinogen is the first coagulation protein to reach critical levels during traumatic haemorrhage. This laboratory study compares paired plasma samples pre- and post-fibrinogen replacement from the Fibrinogen Early In Severe Trauma studY (FEISTY; NCT02745041). FEISTY is the first randomised controlled trial to compare the time to administration of cryoprecipitate (cryo) and fibrinogen concentrate (Fg-C; Riastap) in trauma patients. This study will determine differences in clot strength and fibrinolytic stability within individuals and between treatment arms. METHODS: Clot lysis, plasmin generation, atomic force microscopy and confocal microscopy were utilised to investigate clot strength and structure in FEISTY patient plasma. RESULTS: Fibrinogen concentration was significantly increased post-transfusion in both groups. The rate of plasmin generation was reduced 1.5-fold post-transfusion of cryo but remained unchanged with Fg-C transfusion. Plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 activity and antigen levels and Factor XIII antigen were increased post-treatment with cryo, but not Fg-C. Confocal microscopy analysis of fibrin clots revealed that cryo transfusion restored fibrin structure similar to those observed in control clots. In contrast, clots remained porous with stunted fibres after infusion with Fg-C. Cryo but not Fg-C treatment increased individual fibre toughness and stiffness. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, our data indicate that cryo transfusion restores key fibrinolytic regulators and limits plasmin generation to form stronger clots in an ex vivo laboratory study. This is the first study to investigate differences in clot stability and structure between cryo and Fg-C and demonstrates that the additional factors in cryo allow formation of a stronger and more stable clot.

Thrombus Composition and Efficacy of Thrombolysis and Thrombectomy in Acute Ischemic Stroke.

Thrombi retrieved from patients with acute ischemic stroke are highly heterogeneous. Recent data suggest that thrombus composition may impact on mechanical thrombectomy, the number of recanalization manoeuvres, resistance to retrieval, and on thrombolytic potential. Our aim was to summarize evidence describing the impact of thrombus composition on efficacy of mechanical thrombectomy and thrombolysis in patients with acute ischemic stroke. The scoping review methodology guided by the Joanna Briggs Institute, an adaption of the Arksey and O'Malley, was followed. Comprehensive searches were conducted in MEDLINE, EMBASE, SCOPUS, and Web of Science. Articles were classified into 4 key themes: (1) composition of stroke thrombi, (2) thrombus composition and mechanical thrombectomy, (3) thrombus composition and thrombolytic therapy, and (4) novel imaging and endovascular approaches. Our search identified 698 articles published from 1987 to June 2020. Additional articles were extracted from reference lists of the selected articles. Overall, 95 topic-specific articles identified for inclusion published in 40 different journals were included. Reports showed that thrombus composition in stroke was highly heterogeneous, containing fibrin, platelets, red blood cells, VWF (von Willebrand Factor), and neutrophil extracellular traps. Thrombi could roughly be divided into fibrin- and red blood cell-rich clots. Fibrin-rich clots were associated with increased recanalization manoeuvres, longer procedure time, and less favorable clinical outcomes compared with red blood cell-rich clots. Advances in detection or treatment of thrombi that take into account clot heterogeneity may be able to improve future endovascular and thrombolytic treatment of stroke.

Fibrinolysis in Acute and Chronic Cardiovascular Disease.

The formation of an obstructive thrombus within an artery remains a major cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide. Despite effective inhibition of platelet function by modern antiplatelet therapies, these agents fail to fully eliminate atherothrombotic risk. This may well be related to extensive vascular disease, beyond the protective abilities of the treatment agents used. However, recent evidence suggests that residual vascular risk in those treated with modern antiplatelet therapies is related, at least in part, to impaired fibrin clot lysis. In this review, we attempt to shed more light on the role of hypofibrinolysis in predisposition to arterial vascular events. We provide a brief overview of the coagulation system followed by addressing the role of impaired fibrin clot lysis in acute and chronic vascular conditions, including coronary artery, cerebrovascular, and peripheral vascular disease. We also discuss the role of combined anticoagulant and antiplatelet therapies to reduce the risk of arterial thrombotic events, addressing both efficacy and safety of such an approach. We conclude that impaired fibrin clot lysis appears to contribute to residual thrombosis risk in individuals with arterial disease on antiplatelet therapy, and targeting proteins in the fibrinolytic system represents a viable strategy to improve outcome in this population. Future work is required to refine the antithrombotic approach by modulating pathological abnormalities in the fibrinolytic system and tailoring therapy according to the need of each individual.

Affimer proteins as a tool to modulate fibrinolysis, stabilize the blood clot, and reduce bleeding complications.

Bleeding complications secondary to surgery, trauma, or coagulation disorders are important causes of morbidity and mortality. Although fibrin sealants are considered to minimize blood loss, this is not widely adopted because of its high cost and/or risk for infection. We present a novel methodology employing nonantibody fibrinogen-binding proteins, termed Affimers, to stabilize fibrin networks with the potential to control excessive bleeding. Two fibrinogen-specific Affimer proteins, F5 and G2, were identified and characterized for their effects on clot structure/fibrinolysis, using turbidimetric and permeation analyses and confocal and electron microscopy. Binding studies and molecular modeling identified interaction sites, whereas plasmin generation assays determined effects on plasminogen activation. In human plasma, F5 and G2 prolonged clot lysis time from 9.8 ± 1.1 minutes in the absence of Affimers to 172.6 ± 7.4 and more than 180 minutes (P < .0001), respectively, and from 7.6 ± 0.2 to 28.7 ± 5.8 (P < .05) and 149.3 ± 9.7 (P < .0001) minutes in clots made from purified fibrinogen. Prolongation in fibrinolysis was consistent across plasma samples from healthy control patients and individuals at high bleeding risk. F5 and G2 had a differential effect on clot structure and G2 profoundly altered fibrin fiber arrangement, whereas F5 maintained physiological clot structure. Affimer F5 reduced fibrin-dependent plasmin generation and was predicted to bind fibrinogen D fragment close to tissue plasminogen activator (tPA; residues γ312-324) and plasminogen (α148-160) binding sites, thus interfering with tPA-plasminogen interaction and representing 1 potential mechanism for modulation of fibrinolysis. Our Affimer proteins provide a novel methodology for stabilizing fibrin networks with potential future clinical implications to reduce bleeding risk.

Patients with paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria demonstrate a prothrombotic clotting phenotype which is improved by complement inhibition with eculizumab.

Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH) is a rare hematological disorder, characterized by complement-mediated intravascular hemolysis and thrombosis. The increased incidence of PNH-driven thrombosis is still poorly understood, but unlike other thrombotic disorders, is thought to largely occur through complement-mediated mechanisms. Treatment with a C5 inhibitor, eculizumab, has been shown to significantly reduce the number of thromboembolic events in these patients. Based on previously described links between changes in fibrin clot structure and thrombosis in other disorders, our aim was to investigate clot structure as a possible mechanism of thrombosis in patients with PNH and the anti-thrombotic effects of eculizumab treatment on clot structure. Clot structure, fibrinogen levels and thrombin generation were examined in plasma samples from 82 patients from the National PNH Service in Leeds, UK. Untreated PNH patients were found to have increased levels of fibrinogen and thrombin generation, with subsequent prothrombotic changes in clot structure. No link was found between increasing disease severity and fibrinogen levels, thrombin generation, clot formation or structure. However, eculizumab treated patients showed decreased fibrinogen levels, thrombin generation and clot density, with increasing time spent on treatment augmenting these antithrombotic effects. These data suggest that PNH patients have a prothrombotic clot phenotype due to increased fibrinogen levels and thrombin generation, and that the antithrombotic effects of eculizumab are, in-part, due to reductions in fibrinogen and thrombin generation with downstream effects on clot structure.

Double diabetes: A distinct high-risk group?

The term double diabetes (DD) has been used to refer to individuals with type 1 diabetes (T1D) who are overweight, have a family history of type 2 diabetes and/or clinical features of insulin resistance. Several pieces of evidence indicate that individuals who display features of DD are at higher risk of developing future diabetes complications, independently of average glucose control, measured as glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) concentration. Given the increased prevalence of individuals with features of DD, pragmatic criteria are urgently required to identify and stratify this group, which will help with subsequent implementation of more effective personalized interventions. In this review, we discuss the potential criteria for the clinical identification of individuals with DD, highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of each definition. We also cover potential mechanisms of DD and how these contribute to increased risk of diabetes complications. Special emphasis is placed on the role of estimated glucose disposal rate (eGDR) in the diagnosis of DD, which can be easily incorporated into clinical practice and is predictive of adverse clinical outcome. In addition to the identification of individuals with DD, eGDR has potential utility in monitoring response to different interventions. T1D is a more heterogeneous condition than initially envisaged, and those with features of DD represent a subgroup at higher risk of complications. Pragmatic criteria for the diagnosis of individuals with DD will help with risk stratification, allowing a more personalized and targeted management strategy to improve outcome and quality of life in this population.

Does fibrin(ogen) bind to monomeric or dimeric GPVI, or not at all?

GPVI is the major signalling receptor for collagen on platelets. Dimerization of GPVI is required for collagen binding and initiation of signalling through the associated FcR-γ chain. Recently, fibrin and fibrinogen have been identified as ligands for GPVI and shown to induce signalling in support of thrombus formation and stabilization. Contrasting observations have been reported on whether fibrin binds to monomeric or dimeric GPVI, or to neither form. In this article, we discuss reasons for the contradictory results and how to reconcile these. We conclude that a lack of structural knowledge regarding the GPVI constructs that are being used, along with the use of non-standardized reagents, might be the main cause of the discrepant results. This article aims to highlight some of the key areas that need to be addressed.

Ranking reactive glutamines in the fibrinogen αC region that are targeted by blood coagulant factor XIII.

Factor XIIIa (FXIIIa) introduces covalent γ-glutamyl-ε-lysyl crosslinks into the blood clot network. These crosslinks involve both the γ and α chains of fibrin. The C-terminal portion of the fibrin α chain extends into the αC region (210-610). Crosslinks within this region help generate a stiffer clot, which is more resistant to fibrinolysis. Fibrinogen αC (233-425) contains a binding site for FXIIIa and three glutamines Q237, Q328, and Q366 that each participate in physiological crosslinking reactions. Although these glutamines were previously identified, their reactivities toward FXIIIa have not been ranked. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) methods were thus used to directly characterize these three glutamines and probe for sources of FXIIIa substrate specificity. Glycine ethyl ester (GEE) and ammonium chloride served as replacements for lysine. Mass spectrometry and 2D heteronuclear single quantum coherence NMR revealed that Q237 is rapidly crosslinked first by FXIIIa followed by Q366 and Q328. Both (15)NH4Cl and (15)N-GEE could be crosslinked to the three glutamines in αC (233-425) with a similar order of reactivity as observed with the MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry assay. NMR studies using the single αC mutants Q237N, Q328N, and Q366N demonstrated that no glutamine is dependent on another to react first in the series. Moreover, the remaining two glutamines of each mutant were both still reactive. Further characterization of Q237, Q328, and Q366 is important because they are located in a fibrinogen region susceptible to physiological truncations and mutation. The current results suggest that these glutamines play distinct roles in fibrin crosslinking and clot architecture.

Thrombin and fibrinogen γ' impact clot structure by marked effects on intrafibrillar structure and protofibril packing.

Previous studies have shown effects of thrombin and fibrinogen γ' on clot structure. However, structural information was obtained using electron microscopy, which requires sample dehydration. Our aim was to investigate the role of thrombin and fibrinogen γ' in modulating fibrin structure under fully hydrated conditions. Fibrin fibers were studied using turbidimetry, atomic force microscopy, electron microscopy, and magnetic tweezers in purified and plasma solutions. Increased thrombin induced a pronounced decrease in average protofibril content per fiber, with a relatively minor decrease in fiber size, leading to the formation of less compact fiber structures. Atomic force microscopy under fully hydrated conditions confirmed that fiber diameter was only marginally decreased. Decreased protofibril content of the fibers produced by high thrombin resulted in weakened clot architecture as analyzed by magnetic tweezers in purified systems and by thromboelastometry in plasma and whole blood. Fibers produced with fibrinogen γ' showed reduced protofibril packing over a range of thrombin concentrations. High-magnification electron microscopy demonstrated reduced protofibril packing in γ' fibers and unraveling of fibers into separate protofibrils. Decreased protofibril packing was confirmed in plasma for high thrombin concentrations and fibrinogen-deficient plasma reconstituted with γ' fibrinogen. These findings demonstrate that, in fully hydrated conditions, thrombin and fibrinogen γ' have dramatic effects on protofibril content and that protein density within fibers correlates with strength of the fibrin network. We conclude that regulation of protofibril content of fibers is an important mechanism by which thrombin and fibrinogen γ' modulate fibrin clot structure and strength.

The prothrombotic state in paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria: a multifaceted source.

Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria is a rare acquired hematologic disorder, the most serious complication of which is thrombosis. The increased incidence of thrombosis in paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria is still poorly understood, but unlike many other thrombotic disorders, predominantly involves complement-mediated mechanisms. This review article discusses the different factors that contribute to the increased risk of thrombosis in paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria. Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria leads to a complex and multifaceted prothrombotic state due to the pathological effects of platelet activation, intravascular hemolysis and neutrophil/monocyte activation. Platelet and endothelial microparticles as well as oxidative stress may play a role. Impaired fibrinolysis has also been observed and may be caused by several mechanisms involving interactions between complement activation, coagulation and fibrinolysis. While many factors may affect thrombosis in paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria, the relative contribution of each mechanism that has been implicated is difficult to quantify. Further studies, including novel in vivo and in vitro thrombosis models, are required in order to define the role of the individual mechanisms contributing to thrombosis, impaired fibrinolysis and clarify other complement-driven prothrombotic mechanisms in paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria.

Immobilized fibrinogen activates human platelets through glycoprotein VI.

Glycoprotein VI, a major platelet activation receptor for collagen and fibrin, is considered a particularly promising, safe antithrombotic target. In this study, we show that human glycoprotein VI signals upon platelet adhesion to fibrinogen. Full spreading of human platelets on fibrinogen was abolished in platelets from glycoprotein VI- deficient patients suggesting that fibrinogen activates platelets through glycoprotein VI. While mouse platelets failed to spread on fibrinogen, human-glycoprotein VI-transgenic mouse platelets showed full spreading and increased Ca2+ signaling through the tyrosine kinase Syk. Direct binding of fibrinogen to human glycoprotein VI was shown by surface plasmon resonance and by increased adhesion to fibrinogen of human glycoprotein VI-transfected RBL-2H3 cells relative to mock-transfected cells. Blockade of human glycoprotein VI with the Fab of the monoclonal antibody 9O12 impaired platelet aggregation on preformed platelet aggregates in flowing blood independent of collagen and fibrin exposure. These results demonstrate that human glycoprotein VI binds to immobilized fibrinogen and show that this contributes to platelet spreading and platelet aggregation under flow.