"The Kale Is Green" and Other Things Caregivers Say when Feeding Infants and Toddlers Are Associated with Child Rate of Acceptance.

BACKGROUND: Responsive feeding is important for helping children to develop healthy eating behaviors. Verbal feeding interactions between caregivers and children may reflect caregiver's responsiveness and contribute to children's developing lexical networks related to food and eating. OBJECTIVES: This project aimed to: 1) characterize what caregivers say to infants and toddlers during a single feeding session and 2) test the associations between caregiver's verbal prompts and food acceptance by children. METHODS: Filmed interactions of caregivers and their infants (N = 46 infants aged 6-11 mo) and toddlers (N = 60 toddlers aged 12-24 mo) were coded and analyzed to explore the following: 1) what caregivers said during a single feeding session and 2) whether caregiver's verbalizations were associated with child food acceptance. Caregiver verbal prompts were coded during each food offer and summed across the feeding session; prompts were categorized as supportive, engaging, and unsupportive. Outcomes included accepted tastes, rejected tastes, and rate of acceptance. Mann-Whitney's U tests and Spearman's correlations tested bivariate associations. Multilevel ordered logistic regression tested associations between verbal prompt categories and the rate of acceptance across offers. RESULTS: Verbal prompts were largely supportive (41%) and engaging (46%), and caregivers of toddlers used significantly more verbal prompts than caregivers of infants (mean ± SD: 34.5 ± 16.9 compared with 25.2 ± 11.6; P = 0.006). Among toddlers, more engaging and unsupportive prompts were associated with a lower rate of acceptance (ρ = -0.30, P = 0.02; ρ = -0.37, P = 0.004). For all children, multilevel analyses revealed that more unsupportive verbal prompts were associated with a lower rate of acceptance (b = -1.52; SE = 0.62; P = 0.01) and individual caregiver use of more engaging and unsupportive prompts than usual was associated with a lower rate of acceptance (b = -0.33; SE = 0.08; P < 0.001: b = -0.58; SE = 0.11; P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that caregivers may strive for a supportive and engaging emotional setting during feeding, although verbalization category may change as children exhibit more rejection. Furthermore, what caregivers say may change as children develop more advanced language capabilities.

Infant eating behaviors and Milk feeding independently predict infant size.

OBJECTIVES: This study investigates the association of infant eating behaviors with infant size, and if those associations are mediated by infant feeding. METHODS: Mothers with infants less than 12 months of age and living in Central North Carolina were enrolled (N = 61). Data were collected at baseline and at 3- and 6-month follow up visits. Modified constructs from the Baby Eating Behavior Questionnaire (BEBQ) and Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire (CEBQ) measured parents' perceptions of infant eating behaviors related to food approach (enjoyment of food, and food responsiveness) and food avoidance (food fussiness, satiety responsiveness, and slowness in eating). Linear mixed effects models tested longitudinal associations among infant eating behavior ratings, infant feeding (breastfeeding intensity, timing of introduction of complementary foods), and anthropometry (weight, length, and weight-for-length z-scores). Path analyses were stratified by age and tested for direct and indirect effects of mothers' ratings of infant eating behaviors and infant feeding on infant anthropometry. RESULTS: Linear mixed models showed that general appetite was associated with higher weight-for-age, and satiety responsiveness was associated with lower length-for-age. Path analyses showed that infant milk feeding did not mediate associations. Breastfeeding intensity was independently associated with lower weight- and length-for-age z-scores. Age at complementary feeding initiation was associated with lower length-for-age z-scores. CONCLUSIONS: Associations between parental perceptions of general appetite, satiety responsiveness, and infant weight and length are observed early in life. These findings suggest that parental perceptions of infant eating behaviors may contribute to the early developmental programming of later health outcomes.

Contributions of nonmaternal caregivers to infant feeding in a low-income African-American sample.

Infant feeding is a well-established topic of interest in obesity research, yet few studies have focused on contributions of nonmaternal caregivers (NMCs)-such as fathers, grandparents, and daycare providers-to infant feeding. Data from the Infant Care, Feeding and Risk of Obesity Project in North Carolina were used to investigate (a) which factors were associated with NMC feeding styles and (b) how NMCs' and mothers' feeding styles compared. Multivariate regression models utilizing random effects were used to analyse data from 108 NMCs who were identified by mothers as being heavily involved in infant feeding. Feeding styles were measured using the Infant Feeding Style Questionnaire. Several individual characteristics were important. Higher laissez faire-attention scores were reported by men and NMCs who lived in the same household as infant. Men reported higher indulgent-coax and indulgent-pamper scores. Perceptions of fussier infants, older infant age, and higher infant weight-for-length z-scores were also important. Mothers' and NMCs' feeding styles differed. Compared with mothers, grandparents reported lower laissez faire and indulgent-permissive scores. Fathers reported higher pressure-soothe and indulgent scores. Daycare providers reported higher restriction-diet quality and responsive satiety. Feeding styles were also predicted to change over time for all caregiver types. These findings highlight the importance of helping all caregivers develop skills that will promote optimal infant feeding outcomes. Given the paucity of research in this area, it is important to improve our understanding of what influences caregivers' feeding styles, especially among diverse populations, and how exposure to different feeding styles may shape children's obesity risk.

The influence of maternal psychosocial characteristics on infant feeding styles.

Maternal feeding styles in infancy and early childhood are associated with children's later risk for overweight and obesity. Maternal psychosocial factors that influence feeding styles during the complementary feeding period, the time during which infants transition from a milk-based diet to one that includes solid foods and other non-milk products, have received less attention. The present study explores how maternal psychosocial factors-specifically self-esteem, parenting self-efficacy, parenting satisfaction, and depression symptoms-influence mothers' infant feeding styles at nine months of age, a time during which solid foods eating habits are being established. Participants included 160 low-income, African-American mother-infant pairs in central North Carolina who were enrolled in the Infant Care and Risk of Obesity Study. Regression models tested for associations between maternal psychosocial characteristics and pressuring and restrictive feeding styles. Models were first adjusted for maternal age, education, marital status and obesity status. To account for infant characteristics, models were then adjusted for infant weight-for-length, distress to limitations and activity level scores. Maternal self-esteem was negatively associated with pressuring to soothe. Maternal parenting self-efficacy was positively associated with restriction-diet quality. Maternal parenting satisfaction and depression symptoms were not associated with feeding styles in the final models. Focusing on strengthening maternal self-esteem and parenting self-efficacy may help to prevent the development of less desirable infant feeding styles.

Prevalence, variety, and iron and zinc content of commercial infant and toddler foods sold in the United States that contain meat.

Iron and zinc are important nutrients during infancy, particularly for infants exclusively fed human milk at the beginning of complementary feeding (CF) from 6-12 months. The 1st Foods Study examined the ingredients and nutrient contents of commercially-available infant and toddler foods (ITFs) that were sold in the US and contained meat. Company websites (n = 22) were used to create a database of commercial ITFs (n = 165) available for purchase in the US and contained at least one meat (e.g., beef, chicken, pork). Single ingredient and ready-to-serve meals (for ages ≤ 9 months) and ready-to-serve meals (for ages 10+ months) were categorized as infant and toddler products, respectively. For each product, the ingredient list, intended age/stage, serving size (g), energy (kcal), protein (g), iron (mg), and zinc (mg) per serving were recorded from product labels. Nutrient amount/100 g was calculated for each product and medians and inter-quartile ranges were calculated and compared (1) by intended age/stage of the product and (2) according to meat type. In general, toddler products contained more iron than infant products. Within infant products (n = 65), more iron was found in products containing beef relative to products with other meats, which were similar in iron content. Within toddler products (n = 38), more iron was found in products containing seafood, followed by beef, turkey, and pork. Slightly less iron was found in products with chicken. Zinc content was infrequently reported (n = 17 total products). Because many of the products assessed contained low amounts of iron and zinc, meeting the current infant and toddler requirements for iron and zinc during the CF period may be challenging if commercial ITFs containing meat are the primary source of these nutrients.

Maternal Risk of Cardiovascular Disease Is Associated With Higher BMI Among Preschool-Aged Children: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Childhood obesity is an ongoing concern in the United States. Higher weight status in early childhood is associated with higher weight status at older ages. The Maternal Obesity Matters (MOMs) Study investigated associations between maternal risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and child BMI z-scores (BMIz) among preschool-aged children. This cross-sectional exploratory study included mothers and their 3- to 5-year-old children in Colorado, United States. Maternal nonfasting blood samples, blood pressure, and maternal and child anthropometrics were collected. Maternal CVD risk was assessed on a scale of 0-5 using five health measures. Multivariate regression tested associations between maternal CVD risk and child BMIz. Each 1-point increase in maternal CVD risk was associated with a 0.18 increase in child BMIz, controlling for maternal employment. Intervening upon maternal health may be an important strategy for addressing childhood obesity.

Validation of a Home Food Environment Instrument Assessing Household Food Patterning and Quality.

The home food environment (HFE) is associated with dietary intake; yet measuring HFE quality often requires burdensome collection of detailed inventories. This project evaluated the capacity of the Home Inventory to Describe Eating and Activity, version 2 (Home-IDEA2) to capture HFE quality by measuring the presence or absence of household foods. Validity was tested using a modified application of the Healthy Eating Index-2010 (HEI). Comparative data were drawn from the National Food Acquisition and Purchase Survey (FoodAPS) Food-at-Home Public Use File. HEI scores were calculated for 4202 households in FoodAPS using Home-IDEA2 inventories and full reported inventories. Paired t-tests compared: (1) estimated vs. total edible grams (EEG; TEG); (2) limited vs. all reported foods; and (3) EEG + limited foods vs. TEG + all reported foods. Sensitivity and range of scores were compared. Mean HEI scores for Home-IDEA2 were higher (p < 0.003) than FoodAPS: (1) 51.6 ± 16.1 vs. 49.6 ± 18.1 (food amounts); (2) 53.5 ± 15.8 vs. 49.8 ± 15.4 (food items); (3) 55.5 ± 15.7 vs. 49.8 ± 15.4 (full instrument); differences were small. Scores demonstrated comparable sensitivity and range. The study found that the Home-IDEA2 can capture HFE quality adequately with low data collection burden.

Cultivating Research Skills During Clinical Training to Promote Pediatric-Scientist Development.

Physician-scientists represent a critical component of the biomedical and health research workforce. However, the proportion of physicians who spend a significant amount of effort on scientific research has declined over the past 40 years. This trend has been particularly noticeable in pediatrics despite recent scientific work revealing that early life influences, exposures, and health status play a significant role in lifelong health and disease. To address this problem, the Duke University Department of Pediatrics developed the Duke Pediatric Research Scholars Program for Physician-Scientist Development (DPRS). The DPRS is focused on research training during pediatric residency and fellowship. We aim to provide sufficient research exposure and support to help scholars develop a research niche and scholarly products as well as identify the career pathways that will enable them to achieve their research goals. Herein, we describe the DPRS's organizational structure, core components, recruitment strategies, and initial results, and we discuss implementation challenges and solutions. Additionally, we detail the program's integration with the department's residency and fellowship training programs (with particular reference to the challenges of integrating research into small- to medium-sized residency programs) and describe the development and integration of related initiatives across Duke University School of Medicine. The program served as the basis for 2 successful National Institutes of Health Stimulating Access to Research in Residency (R38) applications, and we hope it will serve as a model to integrate formalized research training for residents and fellows who wish to pursue research careers in academic medicine.