Basal forebrain integrity, cholinergic innervation and cognition in idiopathic Parkinson's disease.

Most individuals with Parkinson's disease experience cognitive decline. Mounting evidence suggests this is partially caused by cholinergic denervation due to α-synuclein pathology in the cholinergic basal forebrain. Alpha-synuclein deposition causes inflammation, which can be measured with free water fraction, a diffusion MRI-derived metric of extracellular water. Prior studies have shown an association between basal forebrain integrity and cognition, cholinergic levels and cognition, and basal forebrain volume and acetylcholine, but no study has directly investigated whether basal forebrain physiology mediates the relationship between acetylcholine and cognition in Parkinson's disease. We investigated the relationship between these variables in a cross-sectional analysis of 101 individuals with Parkinson's disease. Cholinergic levels were measured using fluorine-18 fluoroethoxybenzovesamicol (18F-FEOBV) PET imaging. Cholinergic innervation regions of interest included the medial, lateral capsular and lateral perisylvian regions and the hippocampus. Brain volume and free water fraction were quantified using T1 and diffusion MRI, respectively. Cognitive measures included composites of attention/working memory, executive function, immediate memory and delayed memory. Data were entered into parallel mediation analyses with the cholinergic projection areas as predictors, cholinergic basal forebrain volume and free water fraction as mediators and each cognitive domain as outcomes. All mediation analyses controlled for age, years of education, levodopa equivalency dose and systolic blood pressure. The basal forebrain integrity metrics fully mediated the relationship between lateral capsular and lateral perisylvian acetylcholine and attention/working memory, and partially mediated the relationship between medial acetylcholine and attention/working memory. Basal forebrain integrity metrics fully mediated the relationship between medial, lateral capsular and lateral perisylvian acetylcholine and free water fraction. For all mediations in attention/working memory and executive function, the free water mediation was significant, while the volume mediation was not. The basal forebrain integrity metrics fully mediated the relationship between hippocampal acetylcholine and delayed memory and partially mediated the relationship between lateral capsular and lateral perisylvian acetylcholine and delayed memory. The volume mediation was significant for the hippocampal and lateral perisylvian models, while free water fraction was not. Free water fraction in the cholinergic basal forebrain mediated the relationship between acetylcholine and attention/working memory and executive function, while cholinergic basal forebrain volume mediated the relationship between acetylcholine in temporal regions in memory. These findings suggest that these two metrics reflect different stages of neurodegenerative processes and add additional evidence for a relationship between pathology in the basal forebrain, acetylcholine denervation and cognitive decline in Parkinson's disease.

Cholinergic innervation topography in GBA-associated de novo Parkinson's disease patients.

The most common genetic risk factors for Parkinson's disease are GBA1 mutations, encoding the lysosomal enzyme glucocerebrosidase. Patients with GBA1 mutations (GBA-PD) exhibit earlier age of onset and faster disease progression with more severe cognitive impairments, postural instability and gait problems. These GBA-PD features suggest more severe cholinergic system pathologies. PET imaging with the vesicular acetylcholine transporter ligand 18F-F-fluoroethoxybenzovesamicol (18F-FEOBV PET) provides the opportunity to investigate cholinergic changes and their relationship to clinical features in GBA-PD. The study investigated 123 newly diagnosed, treatment-naïve Parkinson's disease subjects-with confirmed presynaptic dopaminergic deficits on PET imaging. Whole-gene GBA1 sequencing of saliva samples was performed to evaluate GBA1 variants. Patients underwent extensive neuropsychological assessment of all cognitive domains, motor evaluation with the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale, brain MRI, dopaminergic PET to measure striatal-to-occipital ratios of the putamen and 18F-FEOBV PET. We investigated differences in regional cholinergic innervation between GBA-PD carriers and non-GBA1 mutation carriers (non-GBA-PD), using voxel-wise and volume of interest-based approaches. The degree of overlap between t-maps from two-sample t-test models was quantified using the Dice similarity coefficient. Seventeen (13.8%) subjects had a GBA1 mutation. No significant differences were found in clinical features and dopaminergic ratios between GBA-PD and non-GBA-PD at diagnosis. Lower 18F-FEOBV binding was found in both the GBA-PD and non-GBA-PD groups compared to controls. Dice (P < 0.05, cluster size 100) showed good overlap (0.7326) between the GBA-PD and non-GBA-PD maps. GBA-PD patients showed more widespread reduction in 18F-FEOBV binding than non-GBA-PD when compared to controls in occipital, parietal, temporal and frontal cortices (P < 0.05, FDR-corrected). In volume of interest analyses (Bonferroni corrected), the left parahippocampal gyrus was more affected in GBA-PD. De novo GBA-PD show a distinct topography of regional cholinergic terminal ligand binding. Although the Parkinson's disease groups were not distinguishable clinically, in comparison to healthy controls, GBA-PD showed more extensive cholinergic denervation compared to non-GBA-PD. A larger group is needed to validate these findings. Our results suggest that de novo GBA-PD and non-GBA-PD show differential patterns of cholinergic system changes before clinical phenotypic differences between carriers versus non-carrier groups are observable.

Cholinergic changes in Lewy body disease: implications for presentation, progression and subtypes.

Cholinergic degeneration is significant in Lewy body disease, including Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, and isolated REM sleep behaviour disorder. Extensive research has demonstrated cholinergic alterations in the CNS of these disorders. More recently, studies have revealed cholinergic denervation in organs that receive parasympathetic denervation. This enables a comprehensive review of cholinergic changes in Lewy body disease, encompassing both central and peripheral regions, various disease stages and diagnostic categories. Across studies, brain regions affected in Lewy body dementia show equal or greater levels of cholinergic impairment compared to the brain regions affected in Lewy body disease without dementia. This observation suggests a continuum of cholinergic alterations between these disorders. Patients without dementia exhibit relative sparing of limbic regions, whereas occipital and superior temporal regions appear to be affected to a similar extent in patients with and without dementia. This implies that posterior cholinergic cell groups in the basal forebrain are affected in the early stages of Lewy body disorders, while more anterior regions are typically affected later in the disease progression. The topographical changes observed in patients affected by comorbid Alzheimer pathology may reflect a combination of changes seen in pure forms of Lewy body disease and those seen in Alzheimer's disease. This suggests that Alzheimer co-pathology is important to understand cholinergic degeneration in Lewy body disease. Thalamic cholinergic innervation is more affected in Lewy body patients with dementia compared to those without dementia, and this may contribute to the distinct clinical presentations observed in these groups. In patients with Alzheimer's disease, the thalamus is variably affected, suggesting a different sequential involvement of cholinergic cell groups in Alzheimer's disease compared to Lewy body disease. Patients with isolated REM sleep behaviour disorder demonstrate cholinergic denervation in abdominal organs that receive parasympathetic innervation from the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus, similar to patients who experienced this sleep disorder in their prodrome. This implies that REM sleep behaviour disorder is important for understanding peripheral cholinergic changes in both prodromal and manifest phases of Lewy body disease. In conclusion, cholinergic changes in Lewy body disease carry implications for understanding phenotypes and the influence of Alzheimer co-pathology, delineating subtypes and pathological spreading routes, and for developing tailored treatments targeting the cholinergic system.

Atrophy of the Cholinergic Basal Forebrain can Detect Presynaptic Cholinergic Loss in Parkinson's Disease.

OBJECTIVES: Structural imaging of the cholinergic basal forebrain may provide a biomarker for cholinergic system integrity that can be used in motor and non-motor outcome studies in Parkinson's disease. However, no prior studies have validated these structural metrics with cholinergic nerve terminal in vivo imaging in Parkinson's disease. Here, we correlate cholinergic basal forebrain morphometry with the topography of vesicular acetylcholine transporter in a large Parkinson's sample. METHODS: [18 F]-Fluoroethoxybenzovesamicol vesicular acetylcholine transporter positron emission tomography was carried out in 101 non-demented people with Parkinson's (76.24% male, mean age 67.6 ± 7.72 years, disease duration 5.7 ± 4.4 years). Subregional cholinergic basal forebrain volumes were measured using magnetic resonance imaging morphometry. Relationships were assessed via volume-of-interest based correlation analysis. RESULTS: Subregional volumes of the cholinergic basal forebrain predicted cholinergic nerve terminal loss, with most robust correlations occurring between the posterior cholinergic basal forebrain and temporofrontal, insula, cingulum, and hippocampal regions, and with modest correlations in parieto-occipital regions. Hippocampal correlations were not limited to the cholinergic basal forebrain subregion Ch1-2. Correlations were also observed in the striatum, thalamus, and brainstem. INTERPRETATION: Cholinergic basal forebrain morphometry is a robust predictor of regional cerebral vesicular acetylcholine transporter bindings, especially in the anterior brain. The relative lack of correlation between parieto-occipital binding and basal forebrain volumes may reflect the presence of more diffuse synaptopathy in the posterior cortex due to etiologies that extend well beyond the cholinergic system. ANN NEUROL 2023;93:991-998.

Transitioning from Subtyping to Precision Medicine in Parkinson's Disease: A Purpose-Driven Approach.

The International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society (MDS) created a task force (TF) to provide a critical overview of the Parkinson's disease (PD) subtyping field and develop a guidance on future research in PD subtypes. Based on a literature review, we previously concluded that PD subtyping requires an ultimate alignment with principles of precision medicine, and consequently novel approaches were needed to describe heterogeneity at the individual patient level. In this manuscript, we present a novel purpose-driven framework for subtype research as a guidance to clinicians and researchers when proposing to develop, evaluate, or use PD subtypes. Using a formal consensus methodology, we determined that the key purposes of PD subtyping are: (1) to predict disease progression, for both the development of therapies (use in clinical trials) and prognosis counseling, (2) to predict response to treatments, and (3) to identify therapeutic targets for disease modification. For each purpose, we describe the desired product and the research required for its development. Given the current state of knowledge and data resources, we see purpose-driven subtyping as a pragmatic and necessary step on the way to precision medicine. © 2024 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Structural and molecular cholinergic imaging markers of cognitive decline in Parkinson's disease.

Cognitive decline in Parkinson's disease is related to cholinergic system degeneration, which can be assessed in vivo using structural MRI markers of basal forebrain volume and PET measures of cortical cholinergic activity. In the present study we aimed to examine the interrelation between basal forebrain degeneration and PET-measured depletion of cortical acetylcholinesterase activity as well as their relative contribution to cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease. This cross-sectional study included 143 Parkinson's disease participants without dementia and 52 healthy control participants who underwent structural MRI, PET scanning with 11C-methyl-4-piperidinyl propionate (PMP) as a measure of cortical acetylcholinesterase activity, and a detailed cognitive assessment. Based on the fifth percentile of the overall cortical PMP PET signal from the control group, people with Parkinson's disease were subdivided into a normo-cholinergic (n = 94) and a hypo-cholinergic group (n = 49). Volumes of functionally defined posterior and anterior basal forebrain subregions were extracted using an established automated MRI volumetry approach based on a stereotactic atlas of cholinergic basal forebrain nuclei. We used Bayesian t-tests to compare basal forebrain volumes between controls, and normo- and hypo-cholinergic Parkinson's participants after covarying out age, sex and years of education. Associations between the two cholinergic imaging measures were assessed across all people with Parkinson's disease using Bayesian correlations and their respective relations with performance in different cognitive domains were assessed with Bayesian ANCOVAs. As a specificity analysis, hippocampal volume was added to the analysis. We found evidence for a reduction of posterior basal forebrain volume in the hypo-cholinergic compared to both normo-cholinergic Parkinson's disease [Bayes factor against the null model (BF10) = 8.2] and control participants (BF10 = 6.0), while for the anterior basal forebrain the evidence was inconclusive (BF10 < 3). In continuous association analyses, posterior basal forebrain volume was significantly associated with cortical PMP PET signal in a temporo-posterior distribution. The combined models for the prediction of cognitive scores showed that both cholinergic markers (posterior basal forebrain volume and cortical PMP PET signal) were independently related to multi-domain cognitive deficits, and were more important predictors for all cognitive scores, including memory scores, than hippocampal volume. We conclude that degeneration of the posterior basal forebrain in Parkinson's disease is accompanied by functional cortical changes in acetylcholinesterase activity and that both PET and MRI cholinergic imaging markers are independently associated with multi-domain cognitive deficits in Parkinson's disease without dementia. Comparatively, hippocampal atrophy only seems to have minimal involvement in the development of early cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease.

Cholinergic system correlates of postural control changes in Parkinson's disease freezers.

Postural instability and freezing of gait are the most debilitating dopamine-refractory motor impairments in advanced stages of Parkinson's disease because of increased risk of falls and poorer quality of life. Recent findings suggest an inability to efficaciously utilize vestibular information during static posturography among people with Parkinson's disease who exhibit freezing of gait, with associated changes in cholinergic system integrity as assessed by vesicular acetylcholine transporter PET. There is a lack of adequate understanding of how postural control varies as a function of available sensory information in patients with Parkinson's disease with freezing of gait. The goal of this cross-sectional study was to examine cerebral cholinergic system changes that associate with inter-sensory postural control processing features as assessed by dynamic computerized posturography and acetylcholinesterase PET. Seventy-five participants with Parkinson's disease, 16 of whom exhibited freezing of gait, underwent computerized posturography on the NeuroCom© Equitest sensory organization test platform, striatal dopamine, and acetylcholinesterase PET scanning. Findings demonstrated that patients with Parkinson's disease with freezing of gait have greater difficulty maintaining balance in the absence of reliable proprioceptive cues as compared to those without freezing of gait [ß = 0.28 (0.021, 0.54), P = 0.034], an effect that was independent of disease severity [ß = 0.16 (0.062, 0.26), P < 0.01] and age [ß = 0.092 (-0.005, 0.19), P = 0.062]. Exploratory voxel-based analysis revealed an association between postural control and right hemispheric cholinergic network related to visual-vestibular integration and self-motion perception. High anti-cholinergic burden predicted postural control impairment in a manner dependent on right hemispheric cortical cholinergic integrity [ß = 0.34 (0.065, 0.61), P < 0.01]. Our findings advance the perspective that cortical cholinergic system might play a role in supporting postural control after nigro-striatal dopaminergic losses in Parkinson's disease. Failure of cortex-dependent visual-vestibular integration may impair detection of postural instability in absence of reliable proprioceptive cues. Better understanding of how the cholinergic system plays a role in this process may augur novel treatments and therapeutic interventions to ameliorate debilitating symptoms in patients with advanced Parkinson's disease.

α4ß2* Nicotinic Cholinergic Receptor Target Engagement in Parkinson Disease Gait-Balance Disorders.

OBJECTIVE: Attentional deficits following degeneration of brain cholinergic systems contribute to gait-balance deficits in Parkinson disease (PD). As a step toward assessing whether α4ß2* nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) stimulation improves gait-balance function, we assessed target engagement of the α4ß2* nAChR partial agonist varenicline. METHODS: Nondemented PD participants with cholinergic deficits were identified with [18 F]fluoroethoxybenzovesamicol positron emission tomography (PET). α4ß2* nAChR occupancy after subacute oral varenicline treatment was measured with [18 F]flubatine PET. With a dose selected from the nAChR occupancy experiment, varenicline effects on gait, balance, and cognition were assessed in a double-masked placebo-controlled crossover study. Primary endpoints were normal pace gait speed and a measure of postural stability. RESULTS: Varenicline doses (0.25mg per day, 0.25mg twice daily [b.i.d.], 0.5mg b.i.d., and 1.0mg b.i.d.) produced 60 to 70% receptor occupancy. We selected 0.5mg orally b.i.d for the crossover study. Thirty-three participants completed the crossover study with excellent tolerability. Varenicline had no significant impact on the postural stability measure and caused slower normal pace gait speed. Varenicline narrowed the difference in normal pace gait speed between dual task and no dual task gait conditions, reduced dual task cost, and improved sustained attention test performance. We obtained identical conclusions in 28 participants with treatment compliance confirmed by plasma varenicline measurements. INTERPRETATION: Varenicline occupied α4ß2* nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, was tolerated well, enhanced attention, and altered gait performance. These results are consistent with target engagement. α4ß2* agonists may be worth further evaluation for mitigation of gait and balance disorders in PD. ANN NEUROL 2021;90:130-142.

Vestibular Sensory Conflict During Postural Control, Freezing of Gait, and Falls in Parkinson's Disease.

BACKGROUND: The vestibular system has been implicated in the pathophysiology of episodic motor impairments in Parkinson's disease (PD), but specific evidence remains lacking. OBJECTIVE: We investigated the relationship between the presence of freezing of gait and falls and postural failure during the performance on Romberg test condition 4 in patients with PD. METHODS: Modified Romberg sensory conflict test, fall, and freezing-of-gait assessments were performed in 92 patients with PD (70 males/22 females; mean age, 67.6 ± 7.4 years; Hoehn and Yahr stage, 2.4 ± 0.6; mean Montreal Cognitive Assessment, 26.4 ± 2.8). RESULTS: Failure during Romberg condition 4 was present in 33 patients (35.9%). Patients who failed the Romberg condition 4 were older and had more severe motor and cognitive impairments than those without. About 84.6% of all patients with freezing of gait had failure during Romberg condition 4, whereas 13.4% of patients with freezing of gait had normal performance (χ2  = 15.6; P < 0.0001). Multiple logistic regression analysis showed that the regressor effect of Romberg condition 4 test failure for the presence of freezing of gait (Wald χ2  = 5.0; P = 0.026) remained significant after accounting for the degree of severity of parkinsonian motor ratings (Wald χ2  = 6.2; P = 0.013), age (Wald χ2  = 0.3; P = 0.59), and cognition (Wald χ2  = 0.3; P = 0.75; total model: Wald χ2  = 16.1; P < 0.0001). Patients with PD who failed the Romberg condition 4 (45.5%) did not have a statistically significant difference in frequency of patients with falls compared with patients with PD without abnormal performance (30.5%; χ2  = 2.1; P = 0.15). CONCLUSIONS: The presence of deficient vestibular processing may have specific pathophysiological relevance for freezing of gait, but not falls, in PD. © 2022 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Altered Cholinergic Innervation in De Novo Parkinson's Disease with and Without Cognitive Impairment.

BACKGROUND: Altered cholinergic innervation plays a putative role in cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease (PD) at least in advanced stages. Identification of the relationship between cognitive impairment and cholinergic innervation early in the disease will provide better insight into disease prognosis and possible early intervention. OBJECTIVE: The aim was to assess regional cholinergic innervation status in de novo patients with PD, with and without cognitive impairment. METHODS: Fifty-seven newly diagnosed, treatment-naive, PD patients (32 men, mean age 64.6 ± 8.2 years) and 10 healthy controls (5 men, mean age 54.6 ± 6.0 years) were included. All participants underwent cholinergic [18 F]fluoroethoxybenzovesamicol positron emission tomography and detailed neuropsychological assessment. PD patients were classified as either cognitively normal (PD-NC) or mild cognitive impairment (PD-MCI). Whole brain voxel-based group comparisons were performed. RESULTS: Results show bidirectional cholinergic innervation changes in PD. Both PD-NC and PD-MCI groups showed significant cortical cholinergic denervation compared to controls (P < 0.05, false discovery rate corrected), primarily in the posterior cortical regions. Higher-than-normal binding was most prominent in PD-NC in both cortical and subcortical regions, including the cerebellum, cingulate cortex, putamen, gyrus rectus, hippocampus, and amygdala. CONCLUSION: Altered cholinergic innervation is already present in de novo patients with PD. Posterior cortical cholinergic losses were present in all patients independent of cognitive status. Higher-than-normal binding in cerebellar, frontal, and subcortical regions in cognitively intact patients may reflect compensatory cholinergic upregulation in early-stage PD. Limited or failing cholinergic upregulation may play an important role in early, clinically evident cognitive impairment in PD. © 2022 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Discussion of Research Priorities for Gait Disorders in Parkinson's Disease.

Gait and balance abnormalities develop commonly in Parkinson's disease and are among the motor symptoms most disabling and refractory to dopaminergic or other treatments, including deep brain stimulation. Efforts to develop effective therapies are challenged by limited understanding of these complex disorders. There is a major need for novel and appropriately targeted research to expedite progress in this area. The Scientific Issues Committee of the International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society has charged a panel of experts in the field to consider the current knowledge gaps and determine the research routes with highest potential to generate groundbreaking data. © 2021 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

No Dopamine Agonist Modulation of Brain [18F]FEOBV Binding in Parkinson's Disease.

The [18F]fluoroethoxybenzovesamicol ([18F]FEOBV) positron emission tomography (PET) ligand targets the vesicular acetylcholine transporter. Recent [18F]FEOBV PET rodent studies suggest that regional brain [18F]FEOBV binding may be modulated by dopamine D2-like receptor agents. We examined associations of regional brain [18F]FEOBV PET binding in Parkinson's disease (PD) subjects without versus with dopamine D2-like receptor agonist drug treatment. PD subjects (n = 108; 84 males, 24 females; mean age 68.0 ± 7.6 [SD] years), mean disease duration of 6.0 ± 4.0 years, and mean Movement Disorder Society-revised Unified PD Rating Scale III 35.5 ± 14.2 completed [18F]FEOBV brain PET imaging. Thirty-eight subjects were taking dopamine D2-like agonists. Vesicular monoamine transporter type 2 [11C]dihydrotetrabenazine (DTBZ) PET was available in a subset of 54 patients. Subjects on dopamine D2-like agonists were younger, had a longer duration of disease, and were taking a higher levodopa equivalent dose (LED) compared to subjects not taking dopamine agonists. A group comparison between subjects with versus without dopamine D2-like agonist use did not yield significant differences in cortical, striatal, thalamic, or cerebellar gray matter [18F]FEOBV binding. Confounder analysis using age, duration of disease, LED, and striatal [11C]DTBZ binding also failed to show significant regional [18F]FEOBV binding differences between these two groups. Chronic D2-like dopamine agonist use in PD subjects is not associated with significant alterations of regional brain [18F]FEOBV binding.

Differential cholinergic systems' changes in progressive supranuclear palsy versus Parkinson's disease: an exploratory analysis.

Prior studies indicate more severe brainstem cholinergic deficits in Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP) compared to Parkinson's disease (PD), but the extent and topography of subcortical deficits remains poorly understood. The objective of this study is to investigate differential cholinergic systems changes in progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP, n = 8) versus Parkinson's disease (PD, n = 107) and older controls (n = 19) using vesicular acetylcholine transporter [18F]-fluoroethoxybenzovesamicol (FEOBV) positron emission tomography (PET). A whole-brain voxel-based PET analysis using Statistical Parametric Mapping (SPM) software (SPM12) for inter-group comparisons using parametric [18F]-FEOBV DVR images. Voxel-based analyses showed lower FEOBV binding in the tectum, metathalamus, epithalamus, pulvinar, bilateral frontal opercula, anterior insulae, superior temporal pole, anterior cingulum, some striatal subregions, lower brainstem, and cerebellum in PSP versus PD (p < 0.05; false discovery rate-corrected). More severe and diffuse reductions were present in PSP vs controls. Higher frequency of midbrain cholinergic losses was seen in PSP compared to the PD participants using 5th percentile normative cut-off values (χ2 = 4.12, p < 0.05). When compared to PD, these findings suggested disease-specific cholinergic vulnerability in the tectum, striatal cholinergic interneurons, and projections from the pedunculopontine nucleus, medial vestibular nucleus, and the cholinergic forebrain in PSP.

Cholinergic brain network deficits associated with vestibular sensory conflict deficits in Parkinson's disease: correlation with postural and gait deficits.

To examine regional cerebral vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) ligand [18F]fluoroethoxybenzovesamicol ([18F]-FEOBV) PET binding in Parkinson' disease (PD) patients with and without vestibular sensory conflict deficits (VSCD). To examine associations between VSCD-associated cholinergic brain deficits and postural instability and gait difficulties (PIGD). PD persons (M70/F22; mean age 67.6 ± 7.4 years) completed clinical assessments for imbalance, falls, freezing of gait (FoG), modified Romberg sensory conflict testing, and underwent VAChT PET. Volumes of interest (VOI)-based analyses included detailed thalamic and cerebellar parcellations. VSCD-associated VAChT VOI selection used stepwise logistic regression analysis. Vesicular monoamine transporter type 2 (VMAT2) [11C]dihydrotetrabenazine (DTBZ) PET imaging was available in 54 patients. Analyses of covariance were performed to compare VSCD-associated cholinergic deficits between patients with and without PIGD motor features while accounting for confounders. PET sampling passed acceptance criteria in 73 patients. This data-driven analysis identified cholinergic deficits in five brain VOIs associating with the presence of VSCD: medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) (P < 0.0001), para-hippocampal gyrus (P = 0.0043), inferior nucleus of the pulvinar (P = 0.047), fusiform gyrus (P = 0.035) and the amygdala (P = 0.019). Composite VSCD-associated [18F]FEOBV-binding deficits in these 5 regions were significantly lower in patients with imbalance (- 8.3%, F = 6.5, P = 0.015; total model: F = 5.1, P = 0.0008), falls (- 6.9%, F = 4.9, P = 0.03; total model F = 4.7, P = 0.0015), and FoG (- 14.2%, F = 9.0, P = 0.0043; total model F = 5.8, P = 0.0003), independent of age, duration of disease, gender and nigrostriatal dopaminergic losses. Post hoc analysis using MGN VAChT binding as the single cholinergic VOI demonstrated similar significant associations with imbalance, falls and FoG. VSCD-associated cholinergic network changes localize to distinct structures involved in multi-sensory, in particular vestibular, and multimodal cognitive and motor integration brain regions. Relative clinical effects of VSCD-associated cholinergic network deficits were largest for FoG followed by postural imbalance and falls. The MGN was the most significant region identified.

Cholinergic Denervation Patterns Across Cognitive Domains in Parkinson's Disease.

BACKGROUND: The cholinergic system plays a key role in cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease (PD). Previous acetylcholinesterase positron emission tomography imaging studies found memory, attention, and executive function correlates of global cortical cholinergic losses. Vesicular acetylcholine transporter positron emission tomography allows for more accurate topographic assessment of not only cortical but also subcortical cholinergic changes. OBJECTIVE: The objectiveof this study was to investigate the topographic relationship between cognitive functioning and regional cholinergic innervation in patients with PD. METHODS: A total of 86 nondemented patients with PD (mean ± SD age 67.8 ± 7.6 years, motor disease duration 5.8 ± 4.6 years), and 12 healthy control participants (age 67.8 ± 7.8 years) underwent cholinergic [18 F]Fluoroethoxybenzovesamicol positron emission tomography imaging. Patients with PD underwent neuropsychological assessment. The z scores for each cognitive domain were determined using an age-matched, gender-matched, and educational level-matched control group. Correlations between domain-specific cognitive functioning and cholinergic innervation were examined, controlling for motor impairments and levodopa equivalent dose. Additional correlational analyses were performed using a mask limited to PD versus normal aging binding differences to assess for disease-specific versus normal aging effects. RESULTS: Voxel-based whole-brain analysis demonstrated partial overlapping topography across cognitive domains, with most robust correlations in the domains of memory, attention, and executive functioning (P < 0.01, corrected for multiple comparisons). The shared pattern included the cingulate cortex, insula/operculum, and (visual) thalamus. CONCLUSION: Our results confirm and expand on previous observations of cholinergic system involvement in cognitive functioning in PD. The topographic overlap across domains may reflect a partially shared cholinergic functionality underlying cognitive functioning, representing a combination of disease-specific and aging effects. © 2020 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Molecular Imaging of the Cholinergic System in Alzheimer and Lewy Body Dementias: Expanding Views.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Brain cholinergic denervation is a major feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB). We reviewed the topography assessed by a cholinergic molecular imaging study in these two major types of dementia. A small meta-analysis directly comparing vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) PET scans of AD vs. DLB patients is presented. RECENT FINDINGS: VAChT PET studies showed evidence of extensive cortical cholinergic denervation in both forms of dementia, while multiple subcortical structures were also in DLB. Novel analysis revealed evidence of metathalamic denervation in AD, and epithalamus, premotor/sensorimotor cortical, and striatal losses in DLB. Topographically distinct cortical and subcortical cholinergic lesions can distinguish AD and DLB, and new structures have been highlighted here. Differential vulnerability of specific cholinergic projections is likely associated with specific clinical features of these disorders. Improved understanding of the mechanisms and roles of cholinergic neurotransmission in regions with cholinergic deficits may lead to symptomatic therapies.

Freezing of gait: understanding the complexity of an enigmatic phenomenon.

Diverse but complementary methodologies are required to uncover the complex determinants and pathophysiology of freezing of gait. To develop future therapeutic avenues, we need a deeper understanding of the disseminated functional-anatomic network and its temporally associated dynamic processes. In this targeted review, we will summarize the latest advances across multiple methodological domains including clinical phenomenology, neurogenetics, multimodal neuroimaging, neurophysiology, and neuromodulation. We found that (i) locomotor network vulnerability is established by structural damage, e.g. from neurodegeneration possibly as result from genetic variability, or to variable degree from brain lesions. This leads to an enhanced network susceptibility, where (ii) modulators can both increase or decrease the threshold to express freezing of gait. Consequent to a threshold decrease, (iii) neuronal integration failure of a multilevel brain network will occur and affect one or numerous nodes and projections of the multilevel network. Finally, (iv) an ultimate pathway might encounter failure of effective motor output and give rise to freezing of gait as clinical endpoint. In conclusion, we derive key questions from this review that challenge this pathophysiological view. We suggest that future research on these questions should lead to improved pathophysiological insight and enhanced therapeutic strategies.

Cholinergic system changes of falls and freezing of gait in Parkinson's disease.

OBJECTIVE: Postural instability and gait difficulties (PIGDs) represent debilitating disturbances in Parkinson's disease (PD). Past acetylcholinesterase positron emission tomography (PET) imaging studies implicate cholinergic changes as significant contributors to PIGD features. These studies were limited in quantification of striatal cholinergic synapse integrity. Vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) PET ligands are better suited for evaluation of high binding areas. We examined associations between regional VAChT expression and freezing of gait (FoG) and falls. METHODS: Ninety-four PD subjects underwent clinical assessment and VAChT ([18 F]FEOBV) PET. RESULTS: Thirty-five subjects (37.2%) reported a history of falls, and 15 (16%) had observed FoG. Univariate volume-of-interest analyses demonstrated significantly reduced thalamic (p = 0.0016) VAChT expression in fallers compared to nonfallers. VAChT expression was significantly reduced in the striatum (p = 0.0012) and limbic archicortex (p = 0.004) in freezers compared to nonfreezers. Whole-brain voxel-based analyses of FEOBV PET complemented these findings and showed more granular changes associated with falling history, including the right visual thalamus (especially the right lateral geniculate nucleus [LGN]), right caudate nucleus, and bilateral prefrontal regions. Freezers had prominent VAChT expression reductions in the bilateral striatum, temporal, and mesiofrontal limbic regions. INTERPRETATION: Our findings confirm and extend on previous PET findings of thalamic cholinergic deficits associated with falling history and now emphasize right visual thalamus complex changes, including the right LGN. FoG status is associated with reduced VAChT expression in striatal cholinergic interneurons and the limbic archicortex. These observations suggest different cholinergic systems changes underlying falls and FoG in PD. Ann Neurol 2019;85:538-549.

Topography of Cholinergic Changes in Dementia With Lewy Bodies and Key Neural Network Hubs.

OBJECTIVES: The authors investigated the topography of cholinergic vulnerability in patients with dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) using positron emission tomography (PET) imaging with the vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) [18F]-fluoroethoxybenzovesamicol ([18F]-FEOBV) radioligand. METHODS: Five elderly participants with DLB (mean age, 77.8 years [SD=4.2]) and 21 elderly healthy control subjects (mean age, 73.62 years [SD=8.37]) underwent clinical assessment and [18F]-FEOBV PET. RESULTS: Compared with the healthy control group, reduced VAChT binding in patients with DLB demonstrated nondiffuse regionally distinct and prominent reductions in bilateral opercula and anterior cingulate to mid-cingulate cortices, bilateral insula, right (more than left) lateral geniculate nuclei, pulvinar, right proximal optic radiation, bilateral anterior and superior thalami, and posterior hippocampal fimbria and fornices. CONCLUSIONS: The topography of cholinergic vulnerability in DLB comprises key neural hubs involved in tonic alertness (cingulo-opercular), saliency (insula), visual attention (visual thalamus), and spatial navigation (fimbria/fornix) networks. The distinct denervation pattern suggests an important cholinergic role in specific clinical disease-defining features, such as cognitive fluctuations, visuoperceptual abnormalities causing visual hallucinations, visuospatial changes, and loss of balance caused by DLB.

Feasibility and behavioral effects of prolonged static and dynamic standing as compared to sitting in older adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

BACKGROUND: Physical inactivity is prevalent in older adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and may exacerbate their clinical symptoms. The aim of this study was to examine the feasibility of 4-h regular versus more dynamic standing sessions while performing routine desktop activities as a non-exercise physical activity intervention in older adults with T2DM to increase non-exercise activity. METHODS: Twelve older adult patients with T2DM (3 female; age 71 ± 4 years; Body mass index 34 ± 5 kg/m2) completed three sessions (baseline sitting followed by "static" or "dynamic" desktop standing sessions). Participants stood behind a regular height-adjustable desk in the "static" standing session. An upright dynamic standing desk, which provides cues to make small weight-shifting movements, was used for the "dynamic" standing session. Oxygen consumption, cognitive performance, as well as net standing duration, total movement activity, and musculoskeletal discomfort were assessed during all three sessions. RESULTS: All participants were able to complete all sessions. Oxygen consumption and overall movements progressively increased from sitting to static and dynamic standing, respectively (p < 0.001). The duration of breaks during standing (p = 0.024) and rate of total musculoskeletal discomfort development (p = 0.043) were lower in the dynamic standing compared to static standing sessions. There was no evidence of executive cognitive worsening during either standing session compared to sitting. CONCLUSIONS: Prolonged 4-h standing as a simple non-exercise physical intervention is feasible in older adults with T2DM and may have metabolic (oxygen consumption) benefits. Increasing movement during desktop standing may offer incremental benefits compared to regular standing. Prolonged desktop standing might provide an effective intervention in T2DM older participants to target sedentariness. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT04410055), retrospectively registered May 27, 2020.