Relationships Between Schistosoma mansoni Infection Intensity and Nutritional Status and Anemia Among Preschool-aged Children in Uganda.

In a cross-sectional analysis of 354 Ugandan children (age 12-48 months) infected with Schistosoma mansoni, we assessed relationships between infection intensity and nutritional morbidities. Higher intensity was associated with an increased risk for anemia (RR = 1.05, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.01-1.10) yet not associated with risk for underweight, stunting, or wasting.

Time to bring female genital schistosomiasis out of neglect.

BACKGROUND: Female genital schistosomiasis (FGS) is a chronic gynaecological disease affecting girls and women in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), caused by the parasite Schistosoma (S.) haematobium. FGS is associated with sexual dysfunction, reproductive tract morbidity and increased prevalence of HIV and cervical precancer lesions. SOURCE OF DATA: Key peer-reviewed published literature. AREAS OF AGREEMENT: FGS screening and diagnosis require costly equipment and specialized training, seldom available in resource-limited settings. FGS surveillance is not included in wider schistosomiasis control strategies. The interplay of FGS with other SRH infections is not fully understood. Integration of FGS within sexual and reproductive health (SRH) control programmes needs to be explored. AREAS OF CONTROVERSY: There are no standardized methods for individual or population-based FGS screening and diagnosis, hindering accurate disease burden estimates and targeted resource allocation. Treatment recommendations rely on public health guidelines, without rigorous clinical evidence on efficacy. GROWING POINTS: Integrating FGS screening with SRH programmes offers an opportunity to reach at-risk women with limited access to healthcare services. Home-based self-sampling coupled with handheld colposcopes operated by primary healthcare workers show promise for FGS diagnosis and surveillance at scale. AREAS TIMELY FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH: There is growing interest in decentralizing strategies for FGS screening and diagnosis. The accurate predictions on the 'cost-effectiveness' of these approaches will determine their affordability and feasibility within the overburdened health systems in SSA. Clinical trials are needed to optimize FGS treatment. Longitudinal studies can expand on the epidemiological knowledge on co-morbidities and integration within other SRH interventions.

A cross-sectional pilot household study of Schistosoma mansoni burden and associated morbidities in Lake Albert, Uganda.

OBJECTIVES: Schistosomiasis is persistent in Lake Albert, Uganda, but local data are limited. This study aims to describe the local burden of moderate-to-heavy infection and associated morbidity in all ages and identify factors associated with these outcomes to guide further research. METHODS: This cross-sectional pilot study was conducted in July-August, 2022 in four village sites (Walukuba, Rwentale, Kyabarangwa and Runga) of the Praziquantel in Preschoolers (PIP) trial. Residents (approximately four per household) of any age of households of PIP participants were eligible, but individuals <10 years were only enrolled if no older individuals were available. Socio-demographic information, household location, single stool Kato-Katz and hepatic ultrasound results were obtained for a convenience sampled subset of trial households. The primary outcome, moderate-to-heavy infection (≥100 eggs per gram of faeces), was analysed using mixed-effects logistic regression, with a household random effect. Univariate analyses were used for the secondary outcome, periportal fibrosis (Niamey protocol ultrasound image pattern C-F). RESULTS: Of 243 participants with a median age of 22 (interquartile range 12-33) years from 66 households, 49.8% (103/207 with a Kato-Katz result) had moderate-to-heavy infection and 11.2% (25/224 with ultrasound data) had periportal fibrosis. Moderate-to-heavy infection clustered by household (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.11) and, in multivariable analysis, varied by village (Walukuba vs. Kyabarangwa adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 0.11, 95% CI 0.02-0.71), was highest in participants aged 10-15 years (vs. 5-9 years aOR 6.14, 95% CI 1.61-23.38) and lower in those reporting praziquantel treatment in the past year (aOR 0.39, 95% CI 0.18-0.88). CONCLUSIONS: In this setting, schistosome infection and morbidity are pervasive in all age groups. More intensive interventions are needed, for example more frequent praziquantel treatment, under investigation in the PIP trial and improved water and sanitation. More research is needed to understand local treatment barriers and optimal control strategies.

Meningococcal carriage among Hajj pilgrims, risk factors for carriage and records of vaccination: a study of pilgrims to Mecca.

OBJECTIVE: The Saudi government requires that all pilgrims receive a quadrivalent meningococcal vaccine at least 10 days before the Hajj. We conducted a study to determine the uptake of meningococcal vaccine and antibiotic use. We also investigated risk factors of meningococcal carriage and carriage of Neisseria meningitidis pathogenic serogroups A, C, W and Y. METHODS: A cross-sectional oropharyngeal carriage survey was conducted in 2973 Hajj pilgrims in September 2017. A real-time polymerase chain reaction (rt-PCR) assay was used to identify N. meningitidis from the oropharyngeal swabs. A questionnaire investigated potential risk factors for carriage of N. meningitidis. RESULTS: Two thousand two hundred forty nine oropharyngeal swabs were obtained. The overall prevalence of carriage of N. meningitidis was 4.6% (95% CI: 3.4%-6%). Carriage of pathogenic serogroups was not associated significantly with any of the meningococcal risk factors evaluated. 77% of pilgrims were vaccinated but 22.58 % said they were carrying unofficial vaccination cards. CONCLUSION: Carriage of serogroups A, C, W and Y was not significantly associated with any of the risk factors investigated. Almost a quarter of pilgrims were unlikely to have been vaccinated, highlighting a need to strengthen compliance with the current policy of vaccination to prevent meningococcal disease outbreaks during and after the Hajj.

Population Pharmacokinetics of Praziquantel in Pregnant and Lactating Filipino Women Infected with Schistosoma japonicum.

An estimated 40 million women of reproductive age are infected with one of three species of the waterborne parasite Schistosoma spp. Treatment with praziquantel (PZQ) via mass drug administration (MDA) campaigns is the mainstay of schistosomiasis control for populations living in areas of endemicity. The World Health Organization recommends that pregnant and lactating women be included in schistosomiasis MDA programs, and several recent studies have evaluated the safety and efficacy of PZQ use during pregnancy. To date, there are no data describing PZQ pharmacokinetics (PK) during pregnancy or among lactating postpartum women. As part of a randomized controlled trial investigating the safety and efficacy of PZQ during human pregnancy, we examined the PK of this therapeutic drug among three distinct cohorts of women infected with S. japonicum in Leyte, Philippines. Specifically, we studied the PK properties of PZQ among early- and late-gestation pregnant women (n = 15 each) and lactating postpartum women (n = 15) with schistosomiasis. We found that women in early pregnancy had increased apparent clearance and lower area-under-the-curve (AUC0-24) values that may be related to physiological changes in drug clearance and/or changes in oral bioavailability. There was no relationship between body weight and apparent clearance. The mean ± standard deviation partition ratio of plasma to breast milk was 0.36. ± 0.13. The estimated median infant PZQ daily dose would be 0.037 mg/kg of body weight ingested from breast milk, which is significantly lower than the dosage required for antischistosomal activity and not known to be harmful to the infant. Our PK data do not support the suggestion to delay breastfeeding 72 h after taking PZQ. Results can help inform future drug efficacy studies in pregnant and lactating women with schistosomiasis.

Integration of prevention and control measures for female genital schistosomiasis, HIV and cervical cancer.

Female genital schistosomiasis as a result of chronic infection with Schistosoma haematobium (commonly known as bilharzia) continues to be largely ignored by national and global health policy-makers. International attention for large-scale action against the disease focuses on whether it is a risk factor for the transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Yet female genital schistosomiasis itself is linked to pain, bleeding and sub- or infertility, leading to social stigma, and is a common issue for women in schistosomiasis-endemic areas in sub-Saharan Africa. The disease should therefore be recognized as another component of a comprehensive health and human rights agenda for women and girls in Africa, alongside HIV and cervical cancer. Each of these three diseases has a targeted and proven preventive intervention: antiretroviral therapy and pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV; human papilloma virus vaccine for cervical cancer; and praziquantel treatment for female genital schistosomiasis. We discuss how female genital schistosomiasis control can be integrated with HIV and cervical cancer care. Such a programme will be part of a broader framework of sexual and reproductive health and rights, women's empowerment and social justice in Africa. Integrated approaches that join up multiple public health programmes have the potential to expand or create opportunities to reach more girls and women throughout their life course. We outline a pragmatic operational research agenda that has the potential to optimize joint implementation of a package of measures responding to the specific needs of girls and women.

La schistosomiase génitale féminine, résultant d'une infection chronique à Schistosoma haematobium (également connue sous le nom de bilharziose), continue d'être largement ignorée par les responsables des politiques de santé nationales et internationales. Si le monde lui accorde son attention en vue de mener une action à grande échelle contre la maladie, c'est surtout pour déterminer s'il s'agit d'un facteur de risque pour la transmission du virus de l'immunodéficience humaine (VIH). Pourtant, la schistosomiase génitale féminine est associée à des douleurs, des saignements et peut engendrer l'hypofertilité, voire la stérilité. Par conséquent, celles qui en souffrent sont souvent stigmatisées, et le problème est courant dans les régions endémiques d'Afrique subsaharienne. Cette maladie doit donc être considérée comme composante à part entière d'une approche globale de la santé et des droits humains pour les femmes et filles africaines, à l'instar du VIH et du cancer du col de l'utérus. Chacune de ces trois maladies fait l'objet d'une intervention préventive ciblée qui a déjà fait ses preuves: le traitement antirétroviral et la prophylaxie pré-exposition pour le VIH; le vaccin contre le papillomavirus humain pour le cancer du col de l'utérus; et l'administration de praziquantel pour la schistosomiase génitale féminine. Le présent document se penche sur la manière d'intégrer la schistosomiase génitale féminine dans la prise en charge du VIH et du cancer du col de l'utérus. Un tel programme fera partie d'un cadre plus vaste consacré aux droits et à la santé sexuelle et reproductive, à l'émancipation des femmes et à la justice sociale en Afrique. Les approches intégrées qui regroupent plusieurs programmes de santé publique permettent d'élargir des perspectives ou de créer des opportunités visant à atteindre un plus grand nombre de filles et de femmes tout au long de leur vie. Nous exposons les grandes lignes d'un programme de recherches pragmatiques et opérationnelles capable d'optimiser la mise en œuvre conjointe d'une série de mesures qui répondent aux besoins spécifiques des filles et des femmes.

Los responsables de formular las políticas sanitarias nacionales y globales siguen ignorando en gran medida la esquistosomiasis genital femenina como consecuencia de la infección crónica por Schistosoma haematobium (conocida comúnmente como bilharziasis). La atención internacional para adoptar medidas de gran alcance contra la enfermedad se centra en determinar si es un factor de riesgo para la transmisión del virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH). Sin embargo, la propia esquistosomiasis genital femenina está vinculada al dolor, las hemorragias y la infertilidad o subfertilidad, lo que conduce al estigma social, además de ser un problema común para las mujeres de las áreas en donde la esquistosomiasis es endémica en el África subsahariana. Por consiguiente, la enfermedad debe ser reconocida como otro componente de un programa integral de salud y de derechos humanos para las mujeres y las niñas de África, junto con el VIH y el cáncer de cuello uterino. Cada una de estas tres enfermedades tiene una intervención preventiva específica y comprobada: la terapia antirretroviral y la profilaxis previa a la exposición para el VIH; la vacuna contra el virus del papiloma humano para el cáncer de cuello uterino; y el tratamiento con praziquantel para la esquistosomiasis genital femenina. Se analiza cómo el control de la esquistosomiasis genital femenina se puede integrar con la atención del VIH y el cáncer de cuello uterino. Ese programa formará parte de un marco más amplio de salud y de derechos sexuales y reproductivos, de empoderamiento de la mujer y de justicia social en África. Los enfoques integrados que unen múltiples programas de salud pública tienen el potencial de ampliar o crear oportunidades para llegar a más niñas y mujeres a lo largo de sus vidas. Se describe a grandes rasgos un programa de investigación operacional pragmático que tiene el potencial de optimizar la implementación conjunta de una serie de medidas que respondan a las necesidades específicas de las niñas y de las mujeres.

Praziquantel for the treatment of schistosomiasis during human pregnancy.

In 2014, an estimated 40 million women of reproductive age were infected with Schistosoma haematobium, S. japonicum and/or S. mansoni. In both 2003 and 2006, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended that all schistosome-infected pregnant and breastfeeding women be offered treatment, with praziquantel, either individually or during treatment campaigns. In 2006, WHO also stated the need for randomized controlled trials to assess the safety and efficacy of such treatment. Some countries have yet to follow the recommendation on treatment and many programme managers and pregnant women in other countries remain reluctant to follow the recommended approach. Since 2006, two randomized controlled trials on the use of praziquantel during pregnancy have been conducted: one against S. mansoni in Uganda and the other against S. japonicum in the Philippines. In these trials, praziquantel treatment of pregnant women had no significant effect on birth weight, appeared safe and caused minimal side-effects that were similar to those seen in treated non-pregnant subjects. Having summarized the encouraging data, on efficacy, pharmacokinetics and safety, from these two trials and reviewed the safety data from non-interventional human studies, we recommend that all countries include pregnant women in praziquantel treatment campaigns. We identify the barriers to the treatment of pregnant women, in countries that already include such women in individual treatments and mass drug administration campaigns, and discuss ways to address these barriers.

En 2014, on estimait que 40 millions de femmes en âge de procréer étaient infectées par Schistosoma haematobium, S. japonicum et/ou S. mansoni. En 2003 et 2006, l'Organisation mondiale de la Santé (OMS) a recommandé qu'un traitement au praziquantel soit offert, individuellement ou dans le cadre de campagnes de traitement, à toutes les femmes enceintes et allaitantes infectées par le schistosome. En 2006, l'OMS a également affirmé la nécessité d'essais contrôlés randomisés pour évaluer l'innocuité et l'efficacité de ce traitement. Néanmoins, certains pays ne suivent toujours pas la recommandation relative au traitement et dans d'autres pays, bon nombre de gestionnaires de programme et de femmes enceintes demeurent réticents à suivre l'approche recommandée. Depuis 2006, deux essais contrôlés randomisés sur l'utilisation du praziquantel au cours de la grossesse ont été menés: l'un sur S. mansoni en Ouganda et l'autre sur S. japonicum aux Philippines. Dans le cadre de ces essais, le traitement au praziquantel des femmes enceintes n'a pas eu d'effet notable sur le poids à la naissance, s'est révélé sans danger et a provoqué des effets secondaires minimes, similaires à ceux constatés chez les femmes traitées qui n'étaient pas enceintes. Ayant résumé les données encourageantes sur l'efficacité, la pharmacocinétique et l'innocuité tirées de ces deux essais et examiné les données de sécurité provenant d'études non interventionnelles sur l'homme, nous recommandons que tous les pays incluent les femmes enceintes dans des campagnes de traitement au praziquantel. Nous mettons en évidence les obstacles qui empêchent le traitement des femmes enceintes ­ dans des pays les incluant déjà dans des traitements individuels et des campagnes d'administration massive de médicaments ­ et décrivons des moyens permettant de surmonter ces obstacles.

En 2014, se estima que 40 millones de mujeres en edad reproductiva estaban infectadas con Schistosoma haematobium, S. japonicum y/o S. mansoni. Tanto en 2003 como en 2006, la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) recomendó que todas las mujeres embarazadas y lactantes infectadas con esquistosoma recibieran tratamiento, con praziquantel, ya fuera individualmente o durante las campañas de tratamiento. En 2006, la OMS también informó de la necesidad de ensayos aleatorizados controlados para evaluar la seguridad y la eficacia de dicho tratamiento. Algunos países todavía tienen que seguir la recomendación sobre el tratamiento y muchos gestores de programas y mujeres embarazadas en otros países siguen siendo reacios a seguir el enfoque recomendado. Desde 2006, se han llevado a cabo dos ensayos aleatorizados controlados sobre el uso de praziquantel durante el embarazo: uno contra el S. mansoni en Uganda y el otro contra el S. japonicum en Filipinas. En estos ensayos, el tratamiento con praziquantel en mujeres embarazadas no tuvo un efecto significativo sobre el peso en el momento del nacimiento, pareció seguro y causó efectos secundarios mínimos, similares a los observados en sujetos no embarazadas tratadas. Después de resumir los alentadores datos sobre la eficacia, la farmacocinética y la seguridad de estos dos ensayos y revisar los datos de seguridad de los estudios observacionales en humanos, recomendamos que todos los países incluyan a mujeres embarazadas en las campañas de tratamiento con praziquantel. Identificamos las barreras para el tratamiento de mujeres embarazadas, en países que ya incluyen a mujeres en los tratamientos individuales y en las campañas masivas de administración de medicamentos, y analizamos las formas de abordar estas barreras.

Paediatric and maternal schistosomiasis: shifting the paradigms.

Background: In endemic areas, schistosomiasis causes both overt and subclinical disease in young children and their mothers, as well as in returned travellers. Sources of data: Key recently published literature. Areas of agreement: An action plan for paediatric schistosomiasis and female genital schistosomiasis (FGS) is needed with expanded access to praziquantel (PZQ) treatment required. Areas of controversy: Schistosomiasis-related morbidity is underappreciated. Present and future demand for PZQ treatment is bottlenecked, imbalanced and inequitable. Current dosing, treatment algorithms and access plans are suboptimal with treatment stalled during pregnancy. Growing points: Raised dosing of PZQ (>40 mg/kg) is being explored in young children. Surveillance of female genital schistosomiasis FGS is increasing. Use of PZQ in pregnancy is safe and preventive chemotherapy guidelines are being revised in morbidity- and transmission-control settings. Areas timely for developing research: Shifting focus of population-level control to individual-case management. Detection and prevention of FGS within general health services and integration of PZQ treatment for women and children in antenatal clinics. Feasibility studies assessing alternative and expanded access to PZQ treatment to at-risk children and mothers and pregnant women.

One hundred years of neglect in paediatric schistosomiasis.

Early in the history of schistosomiasis research, children under 5 years of age were known to be infected. Although this problem was recognized over 100 years ago, insufficient action has been taken to address this issue. Under current policy, such infected children only receive their first antiparasitic treatment (praziquantel - PZQ) upon entry into primary school as current mass drug administration programmes typically target school-aged children. For many infected children, they will wait up to 6 years before receiving their first medication and significant schistosomiasis-related morbidity may have already established. This inequity would not be accepted for other diseases. To unveil some of the reasons behind this neglect, it is paramount to understand the intricate historical relationship between schistosomiasis and British Imperial medicine, to underline its lasting influence on today's public health priorities. This review presents a perspective on the historical neglect of paediatric schistosomiasis, focusing on important gaps that persist from the early days after discovery of this parasite. Looking to end this inequity, we address several issues that need to be overcome to move forward towards the lasting success of schistosomiasis control and elimination efforts.

A centenary of Robert T. Leiper's lasting legacy on schistosomiasis and a COUNTDOWN on control of neglected tropical diseases.

Part of Robert T. Leiper's (1881-1969) lasting legacy in medical helminthology is grounded on his pioneering work on schistosomiasis (Bilharzia). Having undertaken many expeditions to the tropics, his fascination with parasite life cycles typically allowed him to devise simple preventive measures that curtailed transmission. Building on his formative work with others in Africa and Asia, and again in Egypt in 1915, he elucidated the life cycles of African schistosomes. His mandate, then commissioned by the British War Office, was to prevent and break transmission of this disease in British troops. This he did by raising standing orders based on simple water hygiene measures. Whilst feasible in military camp settings, today their routine implementation is sadly out of reach for millions of Africans living in poverty. Whilst we celebrate the centenary of Leiper's research we draw attention to some of his lesser known colleagues, then focus on schistosomiasis in Uganda discussing why expanded access to treatment with praziquantel is needed now. Looking to WHO 2020 targets for neglected tropical diseases, we introduce COUNTDOWN, an implementation research consortium funded by DFID, UK, which fosters the scale-up of interventions and confirm the current relevance of Leiper's original research.

Human schistosomiasis.

Human schistosomiasis--or bilharzia--is a parasitic disease caused by trematode flukes of the genus Schistosoma. By conservative estimates, at least 230 million people worldwide are infected with Schistosoma spp. Adult schistosome worms colonise human blood vessels for years, successfully evading the immune system while excreting hundreds to thousands of eggs daily, which must either leave the body in excreta or become trapped in nearby tissues. Trapped eggs induce a distinct immune-mediated granulomatous response that causes local and systemic pathological effects ranging from anaemia, growth stunting, impaired cognition, and decreased physical fitness, to organ-specific effects such as severe hepatosplenism, periportal fibrosis with portal hypertension, and urogenital inflammation and scarring. At present, preventive public health measures in endemic regions consist of treatment once every 1 or 2 years with the isoquinolinone drug, praziquantel, to suppress morbidity. In some locations, elimination of transmission is now the goal; however, more sensitive diagnostics are needed in both the field and clinics, and integrated environmental and health-care management will be needed to ensure elimination.

Diagnostics for schistosomiasis in Africa and Arabia: a review of present options in control and future needs for elimination.

Within the World Health Organization 2012-2020 roadmap for control and elimination of schistosomiasis, the scale-up of mass drug administration with praziquantel is set to change the epidemiological landscape across Africa and Arabia. Central in measuring progress is renewed emphasis upon diagnostics which operate at individual, community and environmental levels by assessing reductions in disease, infections and parasite transmission. However, a fundamental tension is revealed between levels for present diagnostic tools, and methods applied in control settings are not necessarily adequate for application in elimination scenarios. Indeed navigating the transition from control to elimination needs careful consideration and planning. In the present context of control, we review current options for diagnosis of schistosomiasis at different levels, highlighting several strengths and weaknesses therein. Future challenges in elimination are raised and we propose that more cost-effective diagnostics and clinical staging algorithms are needed. Using the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia as a contemporary example, embedding new diagnostic methods within the primary care health system is discussed with reference to both urogenital and intestinal schistosomiasis.

Baseline Liver Ultrasound Findings in Preschool Children From the Praziquantel in Preschoolers Trial in Lake Albert, Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Periportal fibrosis is a late-stage manifestation of chronic infection with Schistosoma mansoni . Praziquantel (PZQ), the only drug available for the treatment of schistosomiasis, has limited effect in treating established morbidity. Preschool-age children (PSAC) are not considered to be an at-risk population for severe morbidity. However, the prevalence of periportal fibrosis in PSAC in S. mansoni endemic settings is unknown. METHODS: As part of a phase II clinical trial comparing different dosing regimens of PZQ in children age 12-47 months infected with S. mansoni in Uganda ("praziquantel in preschoolers" trial), we present baseline results assessing liver ultrasound (US) findings as per the WHO Niamey Protocol. RESULTS: A total of 7/347 (2%) PSAC had Image Pattern C with pipe stems and echogenic rings suggestive of periportal fibrosis, 29/347 (8%) had Image Pattern B and 58 (17%) had evidence of periportal thickening There were higher adjusted odds of periportal thickening with older age [odds ratio (OR): 1.04; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.00-1.07], primary maternal education (OR: 1.04; 95% CI: 1.00-1.07) and being taken to the lake weekly (OR: 3.02; 95% CI: 1.19-7.63). A further 44/347 children (13%) had a rounded caudal liver edge which was associated with high S. mansoni infection intensity (adjusted OR: 3.31; 95% CI: 1.46-7.51). CONCLUSIONS: Incipient schistosomiasis-related liver morbidity was detected in young children enrolled in the praziquantel in preschoolers trial. Adequate age-adjusted reference measurements for liver ultrasound findings in very small children are lacking but urgently needed. Schistosomiasis-related fibrosis may be delayed or averted with early and repeated PZQ treatment.

Female Genital Schistosomiasis Lesion Resolution Post-Treatment with Praziquantel in Zambian Adults.

We evaluated changes in female genital schistosomiasis (FGS) 6 to 12 months after praziquantel treatment among 43 adult Zambian women. Most women (60%) experienced decreased FGS severity and 23% experienced complete lesion resolution. This is the first study to demonstrate a meaningful effect of praziquantel treatment of FGS in adult women.

Female genital schistosomiasis burden and risk factors in two endemic areas in Malawi nested in the Morbidity Operational Research for Bilharziasis Implementation Decisions (MORBID) cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Female genital schistosomiasis (FGS), caused by the parasite Schistosoma haematobium (Sh), is prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa. FGS is associated with sexual dysfunction and reproductive morbidity, and increased prevalence of HIV and cervical precancerous lesions. Lack of approved guidelines for FGS screening and diagnosis hinder accurate disease burden estimation. This study evaluated FGS burden in two Sh-endemic areas in Southern Malawi by visual and molecular diagnostic methods. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Women aged 15-65, sexually active, not menstruating, or pregnant, were enrolled from the MORBID study. A midwife completed a questionnaire, obtained cervicovaginal swab and lavage, and assessed FGS-associated genital lesions using hand-held colposcopy. 'Visual-FGS' was defined as specific genital lesions. 'Molecular-FGS' was defined as Sh DNA detected by real-time PCR from swabs. Microscopy detected urinary Sh egg-patent infection. In total, 950 women completed the questionnaire (median age 27, [IQR] 20-38). Visual-and molecular-FGS prevalence were 26·9% (260/967) and 8·2% (78/942), respectively. 6·5% of women with available genital and urinary samples (38/584) had egg-patent Sh infection. There was a positive significant association between molecular- and visual-FGS (AOR = 2·9, 95%CI 1·7-5·0). 'Molecular-FGS' was associated with egg-patent Sh infection (AOR = 7·5, 95% CI 3·27-17·2). Some villages had high 'molecular-FGS' prevalence, despite <10% prevalence of urinary Sh among school-age children. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Southern Malawi carries an under-recognized FGS burden. FGS was detectable in villages not eligible for schistosomiasis control strategies, potentially leaving girls and women untreated under current WHO guidelines. Validated field-deployable methods could be considered for new control strategies.

Zipime-Weka-Schista study protocol: a longitudinal cohort study and economic evaluation of an integrated home-based approach for genital multipathogen screening in women, including female genital schistosomiasis, human papillomavirus, Trichomonas and HIV in Zambia.

INTRODUCTION: Multiplathogen home-based self-sampling offers an opportunity to increase access to screening and treatment in endemic settings with high coinfection prevalence of sexually transmitted (HIV, Trichomonas vaginalis (Tv), human papillomavirus (HPV)) and non-sexually transmitted pathogens (Schistosoma haematobium (Sh)). Chronic coinfections may lead to disability (female genital schistosomiasis) and death (cervical cancer). The Zipime-Weka-Schista (Do self-testing sister!) study aims to evaluate the validity, acceptability, uptake, impact and cost-effectiveness of multipathogen self-sampling for genital infections among women in Zambia. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: This is a longitudinal cohort study aiming to enrol 2500 non-pregnant, sexually active and non-menstruating women aged 15-50 years from two districts in Zambia with 2-year follow-up. During home visits, community health workers offer HIV and Tv self-testing and cervicovaginal self-swabs for (1) HPV by GeneXpert and, (2) Sh DNA detection by conventional (PCR)and isothermal (recombinase polymerase assay) molecular methods. Schistosoma ova and circulating anodic antigen are detected in urine. At a clinic follow-up, midwives perform the same procedures and obtain hand-held colposcopic images. High-risk HPV positive women are referred for a two-quadrant cervical biopsy according to age and HIV status. A cost-effectiveness analysis is conducted in parallel. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The University of Zambia Biomedical Research Ethics Committee (UNZABREC) (reference: 1858-2021), the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (reference: 25258), Ministry of Health and local superintendents approved the study in September 2021.Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to enrolment. Identifiable data collected are stored securely and their confidentiality is protected in accordance with the Data Protection Act 1998.

A 14-year follow-up of ultrasound-detected urinary tract pathology associated with urogenital schistosomiasis in women living in the Msambweni region of coastal Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Complications of urogenital schistosomiasis include acute inflammatory and chronic fibrotic changes within the urogenital tract. Disease burden of this neglected tropical disease is often underestimated, as only active, urine egg-patent Schistosoma infection is formally considered. Previous studies have focussed on short-term effects of praziquantel treatment on urinary tract pathology, demonstrating that acute inflammation is reversible. However, the reversibility of chronic changes is less well studied. METHODS: Our study compared, at two time points 14 y apart, urine egg-patent infection and urinary tract pathology in a cohort of women living in a highly endemic area having intermittent praziquantel treatment(s). In 2014 we matched 93 women to their findings in a previous study in 2000. RESULTS: Between 2000 and 2014 the rate of egg-patent infection decreased from 34% (95% confidence interval [CI] 25 to 44) to 9% (95% CI 3 to 14). However, urinary tract pathology increased from 15% (95% CI 8 to 22) to 19% (95% CI 11 to 27), with the greatest increase seen in bladder thickening and shape abnormality. CONCLUSIONS: Despite praziquantel treatment, fibrosis from chronic schistosomiasis outlasts the presence of active infection, continuing to cause lasting morbidity. We suggest that future efforts to eliminate persistent morbidity attributable to schistosomiasis should include intensified disease management.

Visual diagnosis of female genital schistosomiasis in Zambian women from hand-held colposcopy: agreement of expert image review.

Female genital schistosomiasis (FGS) can occur in S. haematobium infection and is caused by parasite egg deposition in the genital tract. Confirming a diagnosis of FGS is challenging due to the lack of a diagnostic reference standard. A 2010 expert-led consensus meeting proposed visual inspection of the cervicovaginal mucosa as an adequate reference standard for FGS diagnosis. The agreement of expert human reviewers for visual-FGS has not been previously described. Methods: In two Zambian communities, non-menstruating, non-pregnant, sexually-active women aged 18-31 years participating in the HPTN 071 (PopART) Population-Cohort were enrolled in a cross-sectional study. Self-collected genital swabs and a urine specimen were collected at a home visit; trained midwives performed CVL and hand-held colposcopy at a clinic visit. S. haematobium eggs and circulating anodic antigen (CAA) were detected from urine. Two expert reviewers independently diagnosed visual-FGS as the presence of sandy patches, rubbery papules or abnormal blood vessels in digital cervicovaginal images obtained by hand-held colposcopy. PCR-FGS was defined as Schistosoma DNA detected by real-time PCR in any genital specimen (CVL or genital swab). Results: Of 527 women with cervicovaginal colposcopic images, 468/527 (88.8%) were deemed interpretable by Reviewer 1 and 417/527 (79.1%) by Reviewer 2. Visual-FGS was detected in 35.3% (165/468) of participants by expert review of colposcopic images by Reviewer 1 and in 63.6% (265/417) by Reviewer 2. Cohen's kappa statistic for agreement between the two expert reviewers was 0.16, corresponding to "slight" agreement. The reviewers made concordant diagnoses in 38.7% (204/527) participants (100 negative, 104 positive) and discordant diagnoses in 31.8% (168/527) participants. Conclusions: The unexpectedly low level of correlation between expert reviewers highlights the imperfect nature of visual diagnosis for FGS based on cervicovaginal images obtained with a hand-held colposcope. This finding is a call to action for improved point-of-care diagnostics for female genital schistosomiasis.

Perspective on Schistosomiasis Drug Discovery: Highlights from a Schistosomiasis Drug Discovery Workshop at Wellcome Collection, London, September 2022.

In September 2022, the Drug Discovery Unit at the University of Dundee, UK, organised an international meeting at the Wellcome Collection in London to explore the current clinical situation and challenges associated with treating schistosomiasis. The aim of this meeting was to discuss the need for new treatments in view of the clinical situation and to ascertain what the key requirements would be for any potential new anti-schistosomals. This information will be essential to inform ongoing drug discovery efforts for schistosomiasis. We also discussed the potential drug discovery pathway and associated criteria for progressing compounds to the clinic. To date, praziquantel (PZQ) is the only drug available to treat all species causing schistosomiasis, but it is often unable to completely clear parasites from an infected patient, partially due to its inactivity against juvenile worms. PZQ-mediated mass drug administration campaigns conducted in endemic areas (e.g., sub-Saharan Africa, where schistosomiasis is primarily prevalent) have contributed to reducing the burden of disease but will not eliminate the disease as a public health problem. The potential for Schistosoma to develop resistance towards PZQ, as the sole treatment available, could become a concern. Consequently, new anthelmintic medications are urgently needed, and this Perspective aims to capture some of the learnings from our discussions on the key criteria for new treatments.